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JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XXVIII
1912

ISSUED QUARTERLY

PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY

The Seeman Peintert
dueham, n. c.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

A Study of the Action of Various Diuretics in Uranium

I^ephritis — Wm. deB. MacNider 1

^tsTotes on the Birds of Chapel Hill, :Nr. C, With Particu-
lar Reference to Their Migration — Alexaiider L.
Field 16

The Seedlings of the Live Oak and White Oak W. C.

Coker 34

An Experimental Proof of Inverted Retinal Images —

A. H. Patterson 42

Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the

ISTorth Carolina Academy of Science 45

Zoology in America before the Present Period — H. V.

Wilson 54

l^ote on the Fundamental Bases of Dynamics — Wm.

Cain 68

!N"otes on the Distribution of the More Common Bivalves

of Beaufort, ^. C— Henry D. Alter 76

The Gloomy Scale, an Enemy of Shade Trees — Z. P.

Metcalf 88

Capture of Raleigh by the Wharf Rat — C. S. Brimley 92

Viable Bermuda Grass Seed Produced in the Locality

of Raleigh, N". Q.—O. I. Tillman 95

PAGE

Malarial Pigment (Hematin) As a Factor in the Pro-
duction of the Malarial Paroxysm — Wade H.
Broivn 97

The Past, Present, and Putiire of the l^aval Stores In-
dustry — Clias. II. Herty 117

The Resenes of Resins and Oleoresins — Chas. II. Herty

and W. S. DicJcson 131

The Value of Commercial Starches for Cotton Mill Pur-
poses — G. M. MacNider 135

l^ote on the Transformation of Ammonium Cyanate

into Urea — A. 8. Wheeler 146

"New Thermometers for Melting Point Determination —

A. S. Wheeler 148

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

from March, 1909, to Dec, 1912 149

'New Occurrences of Monazite in ITorth Carolina —

Joseph Hyde Pratt 153

IN'atural History iN'otes on Some Beaufort, 1^. C,

Pishes — E. W. Gudger 157

Recent Views on the Chemistry of Diet — Isaac F.

Harris 173

VOL. XXVIII MAY, 1912 No. 1

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL. N. C, U. S. A.

TO BE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER

Ellsha Mitchell Scientific Society

WILLIAM mB. MacNIDER, President

ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, Vice-President

R. A. HALL, Recording Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

Editors of the Journal :

W. C. COKER

J. M. BELL, - A. H. PATTERSON

CONTENTS

A Study of the Action of Various Diuretics ijst

Uranium I^ephritis — Wm. deB. MacNider . . . 1

KOTES ON THE BiRDS OF ChAPEL HiLL^ IST. C, WiTH

Particular Reference to Their Migrations
Alexander L. Feild 16

The Seedlings of the Live Oak and White Oak —

If. C. Coher 34

An Experimental Proof of Inverted Retinal Im-
ages — A. H. Patterson 42

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Societj'- — Quarterly. Price
$2.00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XXVIII MAY, 1912 No. 1

A STUDY OF THE ACTION OF VAEIOUS DIURETICS
IN UEANIUM NEPHRITIS 1

By Wm. deB. MacNidee.

Introduction 1

Review of Literature 3

Discussion of the technique employed in the experiments 4

Course of the experiments 7

The effect of diuretics in uranium nephritis 9

The renal pathology 12

Summary 13

Bibliography 15

In a recent anatomical study ( 1 ) of the nephritis produced in
the dog by the use of various nephrotoxic substances it has been
shown that these substances vary to some extent in the degree
of their selective affinity for the different kidney tissues. Arse-
nic, for example, has a striking affinity for the blood vessel
tissue of the kidney; while potassium dichioraate causes an
involvement of the epithelial element of the kidney much earlier
than does any of the usually employed nephrotoxic substances.

Uranium nitrate, a substance which has frequently been
employed to produce experimentally a nephritis, in its avidity
for the different tissues of the kidney, is not so selective in its
action as are the poisons just mentioned.

If uranium be given in large doses subcutaneously, or if
smaller quantities be used and the nephritis be allowed to per-
sist for some days, the nephritis which it induces with such a
technique is more tubular than vascular. If, on the other hand,
small quantities are employed, 5 to 10 mgs. per animal, and if
the nephritis be terminated early, the reaction on the part of the

^ Presented in abstract before the Society for Pharmacology and Experimental
C*»J Therapeutics, Baltimore, December 27, 1911. Reprinted from The Journal of

^~' Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Vol. Ill, No. 4, March, 1912.
Ct5

2 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

kidney is largely vascular. We possess, therefore, in uranium
a nephrotoxic substance which, when appropriately adminis-
tered, is competent to produce the two main types of nephritis.
For this reason uranium was the nephrotoxic substance selected
to use in the production of nephritides of different severity, in
which one or both elements of the kidney concerned in the for-
mation of urine were functionating pathologically.

By the use of such a substance which produces primarily a
vascular, and later a tubular nephritis, it was hoped that by
studying the physiological response of the kidney at these
stages of its pathological reaction, it might be determined which
element of the kidney in a nephritis was most concerned in
determining the quantitative output of urine. With this object
in view in this study diuretics have been employed which effect
both the vascular and the epithelial elements of the kidney.

In the anatomical study of experimental nephritis which has
been previously referred to, the nephrotoxic substances em-
ployed were potassium dichromate, sodium arsenate, canthari-
din and uranium nitrate. During the course of this investiga-
tion it was noted that there existed a fairly clear cut correllation
between the degree of epithelial involvement in a given nephritis
and the total output of urine; whereas, on the other hand, no
such histological correllation could be made, within certain lim-
itations, between the severity of the vascular pathology and the
output of urine. For example, a nephritic animal with a normal
urine flow, or a polyuria, would show a vascular reaction which
histologically would be similar to the vascular pathology in an
anuric animal. The associated epithelial reaction in such stages
of a nephritis differed very widely. In the early nephritides
with a normal output of urine, or a polyuria, the ej)ithelial
involvement was slight or absent. In some of the experiments,
especially those conducted with uranium, the epithelium ap-
peared to have undergone a shrinkage. In the later stages of
the nephritis when the output of urine had been reduced or an
anuria had developed, the epithelium, and especially that of
the convoluted tubules invariably showed marked alterations.
The epithelial changes varied with the severity of the nephritis.

1912'] A Study of the Action of Diuretics 3

The earlier degenerations consisted in cloudy swelling and
vacuolation, while the later changes were principally an epithe-
lial desquamation, usually preceded by necrosis.

In these late nephritides the swelling of the epithelium was
frequently decidedly noticeable and was sufficient either greatly
to encroach upon or completely occlude the lumen of the tubules.

The present physiological study of the nephritic kidney has
been undertaken to determine, if possible, the part played by the
vascular and by the epithelial pathology of the kidney in influ-
encing the output of urine, and to determine whether or not the
vascular mechanism of the kidney is physiologically responsive
in a nephritis in which there is evidence of epithelial involve-
ment and but little histological evidence of vascular injury.

REVIEW OF literature

The two most important recent contributions to the study of
acute experimental nephritis are those by Schlayer (2) and
Hedinger and by Pearce (3), Hill and Eisenbrey.

These investigations were conducted with the same general
object in view and are principally concerned with the physio-
logical response of the nephritic kidney.

Schlayer and Hedinger studied the vascular reaction of the
kidney in both the glomerular and the tubular types of nephritis.
For their studies in the vascular type of nephritis they em-
ployed as kidney poisons, cantharidin, arsenic and diphtheria
toxin, and for the tubular type potassium chromate and corro-
sive sublimate.

The investigation by Pearce, Hill and Eisenbrey was also
principally concerned with the vascular reaction in acute
nephritis. The authors were able to distinguish types of
nephritis in which either the tubular or the vascular changes
predominated. They were not able to conclude, however, that
a given poison produced an exclusively tubular or vascular
injury. Potassium chromate, corrosive sublimate and uranium
nitrate, caused extensive tubular injury and in the early stages
of the nephritis showed no evidence of vascular injury except
physiologically. When physiological methods were employed
they were able to demonstrate in the early stages of the nephritis

4 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

an exaggerated contraction and dilatation of the vessels and
also an increased diuresis. Arsenic and cantharidin acted as
vascular poisons and produced but little injury to the tubules.
Both of these poisons tended to cause an anuria which was char-
acterized by minimal contraction and dilatation of the renal
vessels and little or no flow of urine. Finally, in this investiga-
tion two types of late tubular nephritis are described: one
anuric and accompanied by gastro-intestinal symptoms; and
the other polyuric until the time of anesthesia.

In addition to these two investigations which are principally
concerned with the physiological response of the kidney, patho-
logical studies of the kidney in a uranium nephritis have been
made by several investigators.

Heineke and Myerstein (4) were able to demonstrate a
marked vascular disturbance in the kidney from uranium in
addition to a pronounced action on the renal epithelium ; while
Dickson (5) in an extensive series of experiments in which the
guinea pig was the animal employed came to the same conclu-
sions.

Christian (6) in his work on uranium nephritis in which the
vascular pathology was studied, described as developing in the
capillaries of the glomerulus, oval or irregular homogeneous
droplets 0.5 to 4 microns in diameter. Similar structures have
been observed in several of the experiments in the series of
animals which will be presented in this study.

The work of Schirokauer (7) on the uranium nephritis of
rabbits is of special interest on account of the associated
anasarca.

DISCUSSION of the TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED IN THE EXPERIMENTS

In conducting the experiments the dog was the animal con-
stantly employed. A total of twenty-three animals were used.
The animals were free from disease and their general nutrition
was apparently normal.

For three days prior to the experiments the animals were
kept in metabolism cages, fed on beef and hard bread and given
once a day by stomach tube a known and constant quantity of
water. The quantity of water varied with the size of the ani-

1912'] A Study of the Action of Diuretics 5

mal. During the period of preliminary observation the urine
was collected daily, measured and studied qualitatively and
microscopically. The existence of a naturally acquired nephritis
was excluded. Two of the animals showed the presence of
albumen and erythrocytes in the urine but no casts.

At the end of three or four days, after the preliminary data
had been obtained, the animals were given from 5 to 10 mgs. of
uranium nitrate subcutaneously. The frequency with which
the injections were repeated was determined by the severity of
the nephritis produced by a given injection and by the stage of
the nephritis that was desired in which to study the action
of the different diuretic substances. Such a method of regulat-
ing the quantity of nephrotoxic substance is more accurate, so
far as the reaction on the part of the kidney is concerned, than
can be obtained by using a constant quantity of the kidney
poison per kilogram of body weight, since different animals
vary very greatly in their response to the same quantity of the
poison.

Usually within twelve or twenty-four hours after the initial
injection of uranium the animals had developed a well-marked
nephritis.

Occasionally on the first day of the nephritis, and almost
invariably by the second day, the animals developed a pro-
nounced glycosuria. The quantitative output of albumen was
not determined. Quantitative sugar determinations were made
with both Fehling's and Purdy's quantitative reagents. These
determinations showed that the output of sugar in a twenty-four
hour specimen of urine varied from 0.25 to 3.22 per cent.

After the production of the nephritis the animals were
anesthetized with either morphine-ether or Grehant's anes-
thetic.^

The following operative technique was constantly employed.

A tracheal canula was tied in place and connected with the
ether bottle to be used in case additional anesthetic was neces-
sary during the experiment.

' Orehant's Anesthetic. The animal is given Vi ec. per kilogram of a 4 per
cent solution of morphine. This is followed in half an hour by 10 ce. per kilo-
gram of the following mixture : Chloroform, 50 cc. ; alcohol and water, each
500 cc.

6 JOUENAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY [May

The carotid pressure was recorded in the usual way, and a
relative idea of the heart volume was obtained along with the
pressure tracing by means of a Hiirthle manometer.

The left kidney was surrounded by a rubber bag filled with
water, and the kidney with its surrounding water cushion placed
in a copper oncometer. The oncometer communicated by means
of a rubber tube with a water manometer which registered on an
arbitrary scale graduated in millimeters the increase or the
decrease in the volume of the organ.

Into each ureter was placed a ureter canula. Observations
of the urine flow were made only from the right kidney, on ac-
count of the fact that the flow from the left kidney was possibly
influenced by the mechanical disturbance necessarily associated
with the use of the oncometer.

The various diuretic solutions were given intravaenously
through the femoral vein, due care being taken of their tempera-
ture.

The experiments were of such a nature that they would
necessarily require considerable time for consecutive observa-
tions of the action of the different diuretics. On this account
it seemed advisable to employ some method to maintain a
fairly constant body temperature. For this purpose a cop-
per water box was used, similar to the ones employed in SoU-
mann's laboratory. The upper surface of the box is concave
and holds a wooden rack in which the animal is placed. With
such an apparatus the animal's body temperature can be fairly
accurately maintained.

At the termination of the experiments, the kidneys were at
once removed and tissue fixed for microscopic study in both
corrosive-acetic and in formaline.

Five of the twenty-three animals employed in this investiga-
tion were either purposely or accidentally killed before or at
the commencement of the anesthetic. Kidney tissue from these
animals was fixed for histological study.

In the remaining eighteen animals the physiological response
of the nephritic kidney was studied under the influence of :

19121 A Study of the Action of Diuretics 7

Caffeine 1-2 cc. of a 1 per cent solution per kilogram

Theobromine .... 1-2 cc. of a 1 per cent solution per kilogram

Digitalin 1 mg. per kilogram

Sodium chloride solution. . . .0.9 per cent, 10 cc. per kilogram

COURSE OF THE EXPERIMENTS

The average daily output of urine of each animal was deter-
mined at the end of the third day, during which time the pre-
liminary observations were being made. Following the injec-
tion of uranium the daily output of urine was ascertained and
compared with the average daily output by the animal prior
to the use of uranium.

Three of the animals were used experimentally after they had
developed a nephritis but before the development of a gly-
cosuria. The daily output of urine by these nephritic and non-
glycosuric animals showed a moderate increase as follows. The
urine from the different animals increased respectively from
278 to 318 cc, from 392 to 440 cc. and from 386 to 358 cc.
The urine showed qualitatively a pronounced reaction for albu-
men, and microscopically hyaline and granular casts and ery-
throcytes.

The remaining animals were used experimentally after the
development of a glycosuria. In each instance, with the devel-
opment of a glycosuria the output of urine at once enormously
increased. For example, in experiment 1, in which the animal
was receiving daily 350 cc. of water, the average daily output
of urine for three days prior to the uranium was 385 cc, while
with the development of a nephritis and an accompanying gly-
cosuria the urine increased on the first day to 620 cc. and on
the second day to 750 cc

Again, in experiment 8, in which the animal was receiving
500 cc. of water daily, the average output of urine prior to the
uranium was 513 cc, while following the uranium with the
development of a nephritis and a glycosuria the output of
urine increased to 1310 cc.

This increase in the output of urine was not an occasional
occurrence, but it developed in each animal that was allowed a
sufficient time to develop a glycosuria. These polyuric and
nephritic animals were anesthetized by one of the methods pre-

8 Journal of the Mitchell Society ^May

viously mentioned. Within thirty-four minutes to an hour and
a half after the commencement of the anesthetic, the output of
urine from these excessively diuretic animals was either very
greatly reduced, reduced to a condition bordering on an anuria,
or an anuria had developed, which in six of the animals per-
sisted throughout the experiment, uninfluenced by the diuretics
which were employed.

This pronounced reduction in the output of urine after the
anesthetic is equally as striking as is the increase in the output
of urine, after the animals have developed a glycosuria.

Experiment 20 is used to illustrate these observations. The
animal was receiving 500 cc. of water daily. The average
outjDut of urine for the three days prior to the uranium was
464 cc. The animal was given subcutaneously one injection of
uranium of 10 mgs. The animal rapidly developed a nephritis
and a glycosuria, and the urine increased to 1018 cc. At the
time of the experiment 294 cc. of this urine was found in the
bladder, which shows quite clearly that the animal was diuretic
until the time of anesthesia. The exj)eriment lasted four hours
and during this time the animal was in a perfectly satisfactory
physiological condition. The general blood pressure varied
between 93 and 108 mm. of mercury and the renal vessels were
physiologically responsive to caffeine, theobromine and 0.9 per
cent salt. Not a drop of urine was voided.

This experiment, associated as it is with others which give
identically the same results, shows a definite relation between
the polyuria and the development of glycosuria. Secondly, it
shows an equally intimate connection between the use of an
anesthetic and the development of an anuria. The polyuria in
uranium nephritis and the influence of the anesthetic in reduc-
ing the output of urine has been observed by both Schlayer (2)
and Pearce (3). Pearce attributes the anuria to a "decreased
glomerular permeability" and makes a similar suggestion to
interpret the results obtained by Schlayer. So far as I have
been able to learn these authors make no note of the association
of the polyuria with the onset of the glycosuria.

1912'\ A Study of the Action of Diuretics 9

THE effect of DIURETICS IN URANIUM NEPHRITIS

To facilitate the study of the effect of the different diuretics
the experiments have been classified into groups, e. g., the
Anuric, Practically Anuric and Diuretic Groups.

Anuric group

Six experiments are included in this group. In all six of the
animals caffeine, theobromine, and digitalin were employed as
diuretics and in four of the animals 0.9 per cent salt was also
used. ISTone of these agents had any effect in reestablishing a
flow of urine. This failure cannot be attributed to either a
failure on the part of the diuretics to increase and maintain an
adequately high general blood pressure for urine secretion, or to
a failure in the vascular response of the kidney. The following
experiment will serve well to illustrate these points :

Experiment 23. The animal's general blood pressure at the
commencement of the experiment was 104 mm. of mercury and
at the termination 107 mm. Caft'eine produced a rise in arterial
pressure of 4 mm. of mercury and a rise in the oncometer of 27
mm. (water manometer). Theobromine produced a rise of 7
mm. in general pressure, and a rise in oncometer pressure of
59 mm., digitalin a rise of 18 mm. in arterial pressure and 20
mm. in oncometer pressure, while 0.9 per cent salt caused no
rise in general blood pressure, but a rise of 15 mm. in oncome-
ter pressure. The animal remained anuric throughout the ex-
periment.

Practically Anuric group

Falling in this group are experiments 6 and 11. They rep-
resent animals which are not absolutely anuric but which show
a gradual decline in the flow of urine which is but slightly influ-
enced by the diuretics.

The first animal of this series, experiment 6, j^rior to the
anesthetic had an output of urine of 810 cc. Following the an-
esthetic an anuria developed for two hours, although during
this time a rise of blood pressure of 14 mm. of mercury and of
oncometer pressure of 12 mm. of water was obtained from
caffeine and a rise of 10 mm. in general pressure and of 12 mm.

10 Journal of the Mitchell Society [^May

in oncometer pressure from theobromine. During the last half
hour of the experiment, under the effect of 0.9 per cent salt
the arterial pressure rose 17 mm. and the oncometer pressure
20 mm. The urine filled the ureter canula and a few drops
were discharged into the receiving flask.

Experiment 11 followed the same general course. Prior to
the anesthetic the animal was highly poljuric. Following the
anesthetic the output of urine for the first half hour period was
2 cc. The urine flow then decreased, although the animal
showed the usual physiological response to caffeine and theo-
bromine. During the final half hour period of the experiment
the flow of urine had been reduced to two drops. The experi-
ment demonstrates a continuance of those changes, whatever
they may be, which lead to an anuria, and which commence with
the administration of the anesthetic, and in this instance have
progressed, uninfluenced by the employment of diuretics.

Diuretic group

In the animals classified as diuretic, the term is used rela-
tively. With few exceptions these experiments were terminated
artificially during a period of diuresis. Such a termination
does not exclude the possibility of the animal later becoming
anuric as was illustrated in the previously described experiment.
The following experiments are representative of this group:
Experiment 16. The animal had a pronounced nephritis,
was polyuric and had developed a glycosuria. Following
Grehant's anesthetic the animal became anuric for fotry-five
minutes. Following the use of caffeine, with a rise of arterial
pressure of 5 mm. of mercury and of oncometer pressure of 8
mm. the urine fiow was reestablished and during the half hour
period following the use of caffeine the flow of urine was 1.5 cc.
Under theobromine without a rise in arterial pressure but with
a rise in oncometer pressure of 4 mm., the flow of urine in-
creased to 3 cc. in a half hour period. With digitalin which
produced a rise in arterial pressure of 10 mm. and in oncometer
pressure of 8 mm. the urine flow increased to 3.3 cc. in a half
hour interval.

1912'] A Study of the Action of Diuretics 11

In three of the experiments of this series 0.9 per cent salt
was used. With the salt solution the greatest degree of diuresis
was produced and this diuretic effect from the salt was more
constant than that from the other diuretics in this type of
nephritis.

In experiment 19, the flow of urine in the half hour period
prior to the use of salt solution was 0.9 cc. Following the salt
with a rise in arterial pressure of 14 mm. and in oncometer
pressure of 49 mm. the urine increased 1.7 cc.

In experiment 17 with a flow of urine of 1.6 cc. — prior to
the use of salt solution, following its use the urine increased to
4.6 cc. The oncometer pressure rose 18 mm. and the general
pressure 6 mm.

The following deductions concerning the diuretic value of the
different substances employed in these groups of experiments
are as follows:

1. In the anuric group, caffeine, theobromine, digitalin and
0.9 per cent salt solution have no effect in reestablishing the
flow of urine. Their failure does not depend upon their inabil-
ity to raise and maintain a sufficiently high general blood pres-
sure to produce diuresis.

2. The inactivity of these substances is not due to their in-
ability to influence the local renal circulation, for the physio-
logical vascular response of the renal vessels as indicated by
the oncometer readings is normal or hyperactive.

3. In the group of experiments classified as practically
anuric the same deductions concerning the inefficiency of the
diuretics are allowable.

4. In addition to these deductions relative to the effect of
the diuretics, this group also shows that the quantity of urine
may not only not be increased by the diuretics, but that the out-
put of urine may progressively decrease, even though the general
blood pressure readings and oncometer readings show the usual
response.

5. In the diuretic group in which the animals show the same
physiological response to the diuretics as was shown by the
animals in the anuric and practically anuric groups — the sub-

12 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

stances effect a diuretic action. Salt solution, 0.9 per cent,
shows a more constant diuretic effect, and the increase in the
flow of urine from the salt is more pronounced than it is from
the other substances.

THE KENAL PATHOLOGY

Five of the animals used in this investgiation were killed
either prior to the anesthetic or during its administration.
Four of these animals had an early uranium nephritis, were
markedly polyuric and had a glycosuria. The fifth animal had
a late uranium nephritis, was glycosuria but was not polyuric.
The out^Dut of urine was reduced below the normal.

In the four early nephritides the vascular pathology of the
kidney was much more pronounced than was the epithelial
pathology, while in the fifth animal with a late uranium nephri-
tis in which the output of urine had been reduced below the
normal, the ej)ithelial pathology predominated. The vascular
pathology in the early nephritides consisted primarily of an
acute engorgement of the glomerular capillaries. The hyi)er-
aemic capillary tufts usually filled the space enclosed by Bow-
man's membrane and frequently this structure gave the appear-
ance of being distended by the enclosed capillaries. The endo-
thelial nuclei of the capillaries and of the capsular membrane
showed no degeneration but were unusually prominent. Within
the capilliaries the vacuoles first described by Christian (6)
were observed in two of the kidneys.

The intertubular vessels showed the same engorgement with
an occasional intertubular exudate containing a few erythro-
cytes.

With this pronounced vascular reaction on the part of the
kidney the epithelial pathology was remarkably slight. The
epithelium had not degenerated, it stained well and showed no
encroachment upon the lumen of the tubules. (Figs. I and II.)

A comparison of the epithelial changes in these animals, with
the epithelial changes in those animals having a complete
anuria is as striking as is the difference in the output of urine
by the two groups of animals before and after the administra-
tion of an anesthetic.

1912~\ A Study of the Action of Diuketics 13

Four of the anuric animals were in an early stage of uranium
nephritis, the stage which has just been described as existing in
the animals killed before the administration of an anesthetic.
In these animals with an early uranium nephritis which were
polyuric and glycosuric, and which following the anesthetic
became anuric, the vascular pathology was histologically sim-
ilar to the vascular pathology noted in those animals that had
not been subjected to the effect of an anesthetic. The epithelial
pathology in these two groups of animals shows, however, a well
marked difference. The epithelium in the anuric animals is
very greatly swollen and is usually vacuolated. As a result of
the swelling the lumen of the tubules has either been very
greatly encroached upon or the lumen has become obliterated
by an apposition of the opposing faces of the tubular epithelium.
The epithelial changes are most pronounced in the convoluted
tubules. (Figs. Ill and IV.)

In the animals grouped as practically anuric, the renal path-
ology is so nearly similar to the pathology of the kidney in the
anuric group that the two allow no histological differentiation.

In the animals grouped as diuretic, the vascular pathology is
similar histologically to the vascular pathology which has been
described for those animals in the anuric group and also for
those animals which were killed prior to the use of the anes-
thetic. The epithelial pathology, however, differes very much
from the epithelial pathology of the anuric group but resembles
in its appearance the epithelial reaction seen in those diuretic
animals obtained before the use of an anesthetic. (Figs. V
and VI.)

SUMMAEY

1. Early in a uranium nephritis, usually within the first
twenty-four hours, the animals develop a glycosuria and be-
come markedly polyuric.

2. Following an anesthetic, morphine-ether, or Grehant's,
these animals either become completely anuric or the output of
urine is greatly reduced.

3. Such animals under the effect of caffeine, theobromine,
digitalin and 0.9 per cent salt solution, show a normal response

14 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

in the general blood pressure rise and in the vascular response
of the kidnej.

4. In certain of these animals the flow of urine is increased
bj these diuretics while in other animals the urine flow is unin-
fluenced.

5. Histologically the vascular pathology of the kidney is
similar in those animals which show a diuretic effect and in
those animals which remain anuric.

6. Those animals which remain anuric show a physiological
vascular response on the part of the kidney vessels similar to
the resj)onse which is obtained in the diuretic animals. The
physiological and the pathological reaction of the kidney ves-
sels in the anuric and in the diuretic animals are, there-
fore, similar.

7. The two groups of animals differ, however, in the degree
of involvement of the epithelial element of the kidney. The
anuric animals show an epithelial involvement which is severe
and which results anatomically in an encroachment upon, or
occlusion of, the lumen of the tubules, while in the diuretic
animals the epithelial changes are less marked and are insuffi-
cient to j)roduce a mechanical obstruction of the tubular lumen.

8. The pathology of the kidney of those animals with an
early uranium nephritis which were examined prior to the use
of an anesthetic showed a vascular pathology which in general
was similar to the vascular pathology of the anuric, practically
anuric and diuretic animals. The tubular epithelium of these
animals which were polyuric, showed but slight changes, and in
their epithelial reaction the kidneys of these animals were more
nearly comparable to the kidneys of the diuretic animals than
they were to the kidneys of the anuric animals.

The physiological and anatomical observations which have
been made in this investigation indicate that in a uranium
nephritis the epithelial changes are more responsible for a re-
duction in the output of urine or an anuria than are the vascu-
lar changes. The way in which these changes influence the
output of urine will furnish the basis for a subsequent investi-
gation.

\-

1912^ A Study of the Action of Diuretics 15

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) MacNider: Journal of Medical Research, vol. xxvi, no. 1 (to be
published).

(2) Schlayer and Hedinger: Deutsch. Arch. f. klin. med., 1907, xc, 1.

(3) Pearce, Hill and Eisenbrey: Jour. Exp. Med., vol. xii, no. 2, 1910.

(4) Heineke and Myerstein: Deutsch. Arch. f. klin. med., 1907, vol.
xc, 101.

(5) Dickson: Arch. Int. Med., 1909, vol. iii, p. 375.

(6) Christian: Boston Med. and Surg. Jour., 1908, clix, 8.

(7) Schirokauer: Ztsch. f. klin. Med., 1908, Ixvi, 182.

Figs. I and II

The figures represent the kidneys of a nephritic, glycosuric and
polyuric animal before the use of an anesthetic. The glomerular ves-
sels fill and distend the surrounding capsule and show the presence of
vacuoles in the capillary walls. The tubular epithelium shows oc-
casion vacuolation, is but slightly swollen and has not encroached
upon or occluded the lumen of the tubules. The tubules contain gran-
ular detritus. B. and L. obj. 3, oc. 1.

Figs. Ill and IV

The figures represent the kidneys of two animals which were ex-
cessively polyuric before the administration of an anesthetic. Follow-
ing the anesthetic the animals became anuric. The anuria remained
uninfluenced by the diuretics. The vascular pathology is histological-
ly similar to the pathology described in the polyuric animals illus-
trated by Figs. I and II. The epithelial pathology, however, is strik-
ingly different. The epithelium shows an acute swelling resulting in
a nearly complete occlusion of the lumen of the tubules. The acute
nature of the swelling of the epithelium is well shown in Fig. III. The
anuria was uninfluenced by the diuretics. B. and L. obj. 3, oc. 1.

Figs. V and VI

The figures represent the kidneys of two animals which were re-
sponsive to the diuretics. The vascular pathology is similar to that
described in the anuric animals. The epithelium shows but slight
swelling and no material encroachment upon the lumen of the tubules.
B. and L. obj. 3, oc. 1.

Chapel Hill, N. a

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF CHAPEL HILL, N. .C,

WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO

THEIR MIGRATIONS.

By Alexander L. Feild.

The material from which these notes are derived was gath-
ered during my four undergraduate years at the University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill,— Sept. 1907 to June 1911.
Since the migrating birds occur in the spring and autumn
months, I was able to obtain tolerably complete records for the
entire time. I made no observations during the three vacation
months of June, July and August. A considerable amount of
my spare, time, however, during the school year was devoted
to a study of the birds found in this region. The total number
of species positively identified was one hundred and seven. Of
this number twenty-nine are known to remain here all through
the year and are therefore called permanent residents. Eleven
are transient visitors, — birds which during the spring and fall
migrations remain here for only a few days or weeks. Twenty
are winter residents, which are birds that breed further north-
ward but spend the winter in this locality. Thirty-three occur
only in the summer, coming here to breed after their winter
residence in the southern United States or the tropics. The
remaining fourteen species are of doubtful classification.

I have added five new species to the hitherto catalogued
species of Chapel Hill. They are the Red-tailed Hawk {Buteo
horealis horealis), Red-cockaded Woodpecker {Dryohates hore-
alis), Pine Siskin (Spinus pinus), Cape May Warbler (Den-
droica tigrina), Kentucky Warbler (Oporornis formosus) .

In 1899 Mr. T. G. Pearson published in this Journal (Vol.
XVIj Part I) a '' Preliminary Catalogue of the Birds of
Chapel Hill, N. C, with Brief Notes on Some of the Species."
One hundred and thirty-four species are included in this cata-
logue, one hundred and nineteen of which actually came under
his notice. About all of the remaining seventeen species had
been recorded previously by Prof. G. F. Atkinson. The latter

16

1912'] Notes on the Birds of Chapel Hill^ ~^. C. 17

published in 1887 in the Ealeigh News and Observer a ^Trelim-
inary List of Birds iCollected in the Vicinity of Chapel Hill."
Ninety-two species were listed. In an article entitled "A Pre-
liminary Catalogue of the Birds of North Carolina," published
in this Journal (Part 2 for 1887), Prof. Atkinson states that
he identified about one hundred and twenty species at Chapel
Hill, but does not enumerate them. No attempt was made by
either of these observers to give any systematic record of bird
migration at Chapel Hill.

Following my notes on the one hundred and seven species I
met with, I have given. a supplementary list of the thirty-three
other species that have been previously listed for Chapel Hill,
making a total of one hundred and forty. For further informa-
tion concerning this last list, the reader is referred to Mr. Pear-
son's article, above mentioned.

The nomenclature used is that of the third edition of the
A. O. U. Check List of North American Birds.

1. Green Heron {Butorides virescens virescens).

This heron is a summer resident. I did not find it as com-
mon as might be expected for this locality. In 1909 the first
bird was seen on April 18.

2. Spotted Sandpiper (Aditis macularia).

I obtained only one record for this species. This was on
April 18, 1909. It is not known to breed here.

3. Killdeer {Oxyeclins vociferus).

I have seen this bird in December, February, March and
April, the latest record being April 13, on which date one indi-
vidual was seen. They are most abundant in March. No
breeding record has been yet secured, although it is probable
that they do breed. It is a tolerably common resident in the
middle section of the state.

4. Bob-white {Colinus virginianus virgijiianus.)

A common resident throughout the year. I have observed
numerous coveys on the campus.

5. Mourning Dove (Zenaidura macroura carolinensis) .
This bird is common at all times of the year. It is classed

18 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

as a game-bird. In 1909 I first heard the Dove's call on Feb-
ruary 14; in 1908, on March 8.

6. Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura septentrionalis) .

This vulture, commonly called ''Turkey Buzzard," may be
seen every month of the year. It breeds in this region.

7. Black Vulture {Catharista urubu).

A flock of these vultures was seen on January 22, 1909.
It may breed in this region, as it has been recorded as a resident
in the eastern and middle portions of the state.

8. Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter velox).

The only time recorded was on February 9, 1909. There
seems to be a scarcity of hawks of all kinds in the region
around Chapel Hill.

9. Red-tailed Hawk {Buteo horealis borealis).

This hawk was noted only once, April 24, 1909. It has not
been recorded by any earlier observer at Chapel Hill.

10. Red-shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus lineatus).

This is apparently the commonest member of the family in
this locality. I have only observed it in December, February,
March and April, however.

11. Sparrow Hawk (Faico sparverius sparverius).

Next to the Red-shouldered Hawk, the Sparrow Hawk is
most often seen. One pair evidently nested in the oaks back of
the South Building.

12. Barred Owl (Strix varia varia).

In the winter and spring months these birds were heard call-
ing night after night in the forest south of the campus and in
Battle's Park. Sometimes several would be heard at once.

13. Screech Owl (Otus asio asio).

This little owl is often heard on the campus. I never actually
saw but one individual here.

14. Yellow-billed iCiickoo (Coccyzus americanus americanus) .
This "Rain-Crow" was first seen on May 17 in 1908, and on

April 28 in 1911. It is a not uncommon summer resident.

1912'] N"oTES ON 1 HE Birds OF Chapel Hill, N. C. 19

15. Belted Kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon).

I have observed this species only in March, April and May,
the earliest record being March 25, and the latest May 2. It
probably breeds. Ko record of it has yet been obtained.

16. Hairy Woodpecker (Dryohates villosus auduboni).
This bird is not at all uncommon around Chapel Hill. I

have seen it in i^ovember, December, January, April, and May.
The latest spring record was May 27. It breeds here without
doubt.

17. Downy Woodpecker {Dryohates puhescens).

This is the smallest and most abundant woodpecker at
Chapel Hill. It was seen in all months of the year. I met with
it most frequently in February. In the middle of this month
it starts its loud drumming, which is the mating-call

18. Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Dryohates horealis).

The woodpecker has not been recorded for Chapel Hill by
earlier observers. I found it a not uncommon bird in Battle's
Park and other neighboring woods. This species was seen by
me five times in the months of March and April, 1909, the
latest being on April 17. The Red-cocaded Woodpecker was
usually observed in numbers ranging from two to six.

19. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius varius).
This common migrant woodpecker occurs here. The average

date of its arrival was October 16. The earliest were on Octo-
11 in 1907 and 1911. The latest time at which it was seen in
the spring was on April 26 in 1911. It was noted in all the
intervening months except November, but was most abundant
from January 15 to February 15.

20. Pileated Woodpecker {Pliloeotomus pileatus pileatus).
This large bird was seen on four occasions, the dates being

ISTovember 28, 1907, January 9, January 22, February 20,
1909. On three of these occasions it was found in the forest
several miles south-east of the campus. Only one individual
was seen at any one time.

20 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

21. Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus).
This handsome bird is a very conspicuous inhabitant of the

campus. It is not so abundant in the surrounding region. It
seemed most numerous in May. I have no records for Decem-
ber, nor for the first three weeks in January. In 1909 the loud
drumming mating-call was first heard on February 5.

22. Red-bellied Woodpecker (Centurus carolinus).

One of the anomalies of Chapel Hill ornithology is the abund-
ance of this woodpecker, which is rare in very similar local-
ities. I observed one pair nesting in a hole in an elm in the
back-yard of the old Archer place. The time was April. I
have also seen this bird during the fall and winter months, ex-
cept February.

23. Flicker (Colaptes auratus auratus).

Next to the Downy the commonest woodpecker. I found it
most conspicuous in March. It is a resident species.

24. Whippoorwill (Antrostomus vociferous vociferous).

The average date of arrival of this migrant was April 5.
The earliest arrival was noted on March 31, 1910. These birds
during the spring migrations may be heard calling in large num-
bers in Battle's Park and the woods south of the campus. Those
individuals that remain to breed continue their calling through
the first week in May.

25. Nighthawk (Chordeiles virginianus virginianus) .

This bird breeds at Chapel Hill. I saw one bird perform for
several successive evenings the sky-coasting performance, for
which the species is famous, over the cemetery and adjoining
woods. This was about May 1, 1911. The earliest record I
obtained was April 11, in 1908. In 1911 I saw it as late as
October 7.

26. Chimney Swift (Chaetura pelagica).

My records for the arrival of this well-known summer visitor
are as follows: March 31, 1908, April 4, 1909, April 4, 1910,
April 5, 1911. In 1908 and 1909 it was last seen on October
10; in 1907, on October 9. In the fall, just before they leave,

1912'] ISToTES OK THE BiRDS OF Chapel Hill, IST. C. 21

these swifts gather in great numbers in the chimneys of the
South Building.

27. Eubj-throated Hummingbird (Archilochus coluhris).
Arrived on April 16 in 1908, and on April 15 In 1909. A

common summer resident.

28. Kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus).

I found the Kingbird not very common at Chapel Hill. The
earliest spring arrival was on April 26, 1908. In 1907 it was
seen as late in the fall as September 3. This flycatcher is not
as abundant as in many similar sections of the state.

29. Crested Flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus).

Earliest spring arrival, April 16, 1908 and 1910; average
arrival, April 18. Last seen in the fall of 1907 on September
17. This is a very common bird at Chapel Hill, breeding on
the campus.

30. Phoebe (Sayornis phoehe).

A nest containing three eggs and one young was found by me
on April 24, 1909, under the eaves of a mill near Chapel Hill.
I have observed the Phoebe during all the nine months of the
school year. It was most abundant in February.

31. Wood Pewee (Myiochanes virens).

A very common summer resident. Average time of arrival
was April 27; earliest arrival was on April 24, 1907. The
Wood Pewee was last seen in 1907 on October 14.

.32. Acadian Flycatcher (Empidonax vif^escens).

A rather common summer resident. It usually appeared
about May 4. Earliest arrival on May 1, 1910.

33. Blue Jay (Cyanocitta cristata cristata).

An abundant resident of the campus. It is not so numerous,
however, in the surrounding region.

34. Crow (Corvus hrachyrhynchos hrachyrhynchos) .
A common permanent resident.

J35. Bobolink (Doliclbonyx oryzivorus).

Small flocks of these migrants were seen April 3-7. 1908,

22 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Ma]/

April 7, 1909, April 5, 1911, on the campus. The males were
in song on each occasion.

36. Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus phoeniceus).
This bird is perhaps a rare summer resident. I have it re-
corded only during November, however. The scarcity of this
and other species of similar breeding habits may be due to the
absence of much swamp-land or many ponds n6ar Chapel Hill.

37. Meadowlark (Sturnella magna magna).

It may be that these birds breed occasionally here. No
record, however, has been obtained. I have observed them from
October 22 to April 22. The Meadowlark begins to sing about
January 8 and continues until March 30. They are common
birds on the campus in the winter and spring months.

38. Orchard Oriole (Icterus spurius).

A summer resident on the campus. Is a tolerably common
species. Average appearance in spring, April 28; earliest^
April 22, 1909.

39. Baltimore Oriole {Icterus galhula).

One individual was observed on April 27, 1908, in the arbor-
etum. There is only one other record for this species at Chapel
Hill, this being May 2, 1901.

40. Purple Crackle (Quiscalus quiscula quiscula).
Only seen on March 5, 1908, and February 12, 1911.

41. Purple Finch (Carpodacus purpureus purpureus).

This winter visitor is abundant at Chapel Hill during March
and part of April. The latest records I obtained were on April

23 in 1909 and 1911. I did not see it at all in the fall; nor
earlier in the winter than February 2. The Purple Finch sings
continually from about Februtry 14 until it leaves in the spring.

42. English Sparrow (Passer domesticus).
Abundant in town and spreading into the country.

43. Goldfinch (Astragalinus tristis tristis).

A common permanent resident, abundant during March and
April. Begins to sing about March 19. Found associated
largely with the Purple Finch.

1912'] Notes on the Birds of Chapel Hill, N. C. 23

44. Pine Siskin (Spinus pinus).

This uncommon transient visitor was noted in abundance on
the campus from April 23 to May 6, 1911. These are the first
recorded at Chapel Hill.

45. Vesper Sparrow (Pooecetes grmnineus gramineus).
First seen in 1908, on October 30 ; was seen in December ;

and on April 3, 1909. A rather uncommon winter visitor.

46. Savannah Sparrow {Passer cuius sandwichensis savanna).
I only saw this bird in the spring of 1909. It occurs probably

as a regular winter bird. I found it common in the arboretum
from April 2 to April 23. One individual was heard to sing on
April 18.

47. Grasshopper Sparraw (Ammodramus savannarum aus-
tralis) .

Observed only on May 30, 1908, and April 10, 1911. It is
not known to breed here, but probably does.

48. White-throated Sparrow (Zonotrichia alhicollis).

An abundant winter visitor. Length of stay: October 14,
1907, to April 11, 1908; October 16, 1908, to May 7, 1909;

to May 5, 1910 ; October 13, 1910, to May 7, 1911.

Sings during its entire stay, but most frequently in April.

49. Chipping Sparrow (Spizella passerina passerina).
Abundant as a summer resident. Spring arrivals are as fol-
lows: March 6, 1908, February 28, 1909, March 9, 1910. It
usually leaves about ^November 10. On December 10, 1907,
however, quite a number were seen on the campus.

50. Field Sparrow (Spizella pusilla pusilla).

This common permanent resident begins to sing regularly
about February 14. One individual was heard as early, how-
ever, as January 22.

51. Slate-colored Junco (Junco hyemalis hyemalis).

The '' Snow-bird" is a very common winter visitor. The av-
erage date of arrival was November 10; the earliest, October
25, 1908. In the spring it was seen until April 15 in 1909.

24 Journal of the Mitchell Society ^May

The Junco begins to sing about February 17 and continues until
its departure in April.

52. Bachmans Sparrow (Peucaea aestivalis hachmani) .

A not uncommon bird at Chapel Hill. It arrived in 1908 on
April 26, and in 1909 on April 17. I am of the opinion that
one pair of these birds usually breeds in the neighborhood of the
cemetery.

54. Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia melodia).

My records of the length of stay of this common winter visitor
are: October 22, 1907, to March 29, 1908; October 20, 1908,

to April 8, 1909 ; October 21, 1910, to . Its song is heard

throughout its residence here, but it is most frequently heard
during March.

55. Swamp Sparrow (Melospiza georgiana).

Observed on only one occasion in the winter (date not
kno^vn). By no means a common bird in this locality.

56. Fox Sparrow (Passerella iliaca iliaca).

This winter visitor arrived in 1907 on ISTovember 28. I
found it much commoner in the first three months of the year
than in ISTovember or December. It was last seen in 1909, on
March 18. Its song was heard in January, February, and
March.

57. Towhee (Poplio erythrophthalmus erytliroplitJialmus) .
This bird finds a very congenial winter home in the valleys of

Chapel Hill. I found the usual date of arrival to be October 16
(earliest, October 11, 1907). This bird lingers in the spring as
late as May 6, which is the average of three years' observations.
The last bird seen in 1909 was on May 9. The Towhee begins
to sing in the middle of February and continues until about
April 6.

58. Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis).

A common resident all the year. Begins to sing in January,
but is not in full voice until February 15.

1912'\ Notes on the Birds of Chapel Hill, X. C. 25

59. Rose-breasted Grosbeak {Zamelodia ludoviciana) .

One male observed on April 28, 1908, in the village. A rare
transient visitor.

60. Blue Grosbeak {Guiraca caerulea caerulea).

A not uncommon bird during the spring migration. Arrived
on the following days: May 9, 1908, May 9, 1909, May 1, 1910,
May 24, 1911. It is without doubt a summer resident here.

61. Indigo Bunting (Passerina cyanea).

A very common summer resident, the bird's average arrival
for three years being April 24 (earliest record, April 23, 1909,
1911). The Indigo is a persistent singer from the time of its
arrival until late summer.

62. Scarlet Tanager (Piranga erythromelas) .

In 1910 this was a rather common bird on the campus from
May 10 to 16. It was not seen at any other time. A rather un-
common transient visitor at Chapel Hill.

63. Summer Tanager {Piranga rubra ruhra).

This Tanager is the common form at Chapel Hill. It is a
resident in the summer. The extreme length of stay was from
April 15 (1909) to September 26 (1907). I found it to arrive
usually about April 20.

64. Purple Martin {Progne suhis suhis).

In 1908 this swallow, which is rather uncommon at Chapel
Hill, arrived on April 22. In 1907 one individual was seen on
September 7. I do not know of any that nest here.

65. Barn Swallow (Hirundo eythrogastra) .

Observed only in the spring of 1908, May 6 to 8, and in the
fall of 1909, September 17. On both occasions the birds were
migrating in flocks of eight or ten individuals.

66. Rough-winged Swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis) .
The earliest appearance of this bird was on April 10, 1910.

It is perhaps a rather uncommon summer resident. In the
migration season, however, it is more numerous, being seen reg-
ularly every year.

26 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

67. Cedar Waxwing (Bomhy cilia cedrorum).

I have seen the Cedar-bird from October 29 to November 8,
and from January 4 to May 30. It probably occurs also in
December. It is not certain whether it breeds in this locality
or not. There are no records of its nesting here. It is very
common in the late winter and spring.

68. Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludovicianus ludovicianus) .
My only record for this bird was on October 15, 1907, when

one individual was seen in the village. It is a rare winter vis-
itor,

69. Red-eyed Vireo {Vireosylva olivacea) .

This is the commonest Vireo at -Chapel Hill, arriving from
the south about April 22 (earliest record, April 18, 1908). It
breeds abundantly.

70. Yellow-throated Vireo (Lanivireo flavifrons).

A summer resident, almost as abundant as the Red-eyed
Vireo, and fully as persistent a songster. It arrives about April
15. (Earliest record, April 8.) In 1907 it was seen in autumn
as late as September 21.

71. Blue-headed Vireo (Lanivireo solitarius solitarius).
Two birds were observed in the fall of 1907 in the village

(date not exactly known).

72. White-eyed Vireo (Vireo griseus griseus).

I^ot as common as would be expected for this locality. A
summer resident. Arrived in 1908 on March 29, the average
appearance being on April 6.

73. Black and White Warbler (Mniotilia varia).

This warbler usually arrived on the first of April (earliest
record, March 28, 1909). It breeds here and is tolerably com-
mon.

74. Parula Warbler (Compsothlypis americana mnericana).
Usually arrives about April 8. In 1910 the Parula Warbler

appeared on April 3, which was my earliest observation. It is
very common during the migration season and until May 15.
It probably breeds at Chapel Hill. I have an entry for this

19121 Notes on the Birds of Chapel Hill, N. C. 27

species on September 2, 1907, which was as late as I found it
in the fall.

75. Cape May Warbler (Dendroica tigrina).

In the spring of 1909 this rare bird was tolerably common in
the oaks on the campus from April 26 to May 3. These are
the first recorded at Chapel Hill, and must be regarded as very
rare transient visitors.

76. Yellow Warbler (Dendroica aestiva aestiva).

Spring arrivals were: April 20, 1908, April 19, 1909, April
16, 1910, April 18, 1911. Last bird seen in 1907 on September
20. A tolerably common breeding bird.

77. Black-throated Blue Warbler (Dendroica caerulescens
caerulescens) .

Observed only once, on April 25, 1909, in the arboretum.

78. Myrtle Warbler (Dendroica coronata).

This warbler is a common winter visitor, reaching Chapel
Hill as follows: October 14, 1907, October 25, 1908, October
22, 1909, October 21, 1910. It becomes extremely abundant in
March, is less abundant in April, and leaves early in May.
(Latest observed. May 15, 1910.)

79. Black-poll Warbler (Dendroica striata).

I found this warbler a regular transient visitor, which, during
its stay, was almost abundant. It was recorded each year, the
earliest arrival being April 29, 1911, the latest May 7, 1908.
In 1910 it remained until May 22. Its song was heard during
its short residence very often. It was not seen in the fall.

80. Yellow-throated Warbler (Dendroica dominica dominica).
An early spring migrant, whose coming was noted as follows :

April 7, 1908, March 28, 1909, March 29, 1910, April 7, 1911.
In 1907 it was seen until September 14. It breeds and is tol-
erably common, — very common during the migrations.

81. Pine Warbler (Dendroica vigorsi).

A resident all the year and is very common at Chapel Hill.
It begins to sing regularly about February 15, although on

28 Journal of the Mitchell Society ^May

warm days in December and January it occasionally bursts
into song. It continues to sing until October.

82. Prairie Warbler (Dendroica discolor).

A common summer resident in the thickety hill-sides around
Chapel Hill. My records for spring arrivals for four years all
lie between April 14 and April 18. In 1907 it was noted on
September 15.

83. Oven-bird (Seiurus aurocapillus) .

This bird appeared in the spring during my four years stay
from April 10 to April 21. It is without doubt a summer resi-
dent ; during the migration it is common, becoming only toler-
ably common later in the year.

84. Louisiana Water-thrush {Seiurus ynotacilla).

This warbler is a resident at Chapel Hill. It appeared in
the spring as follows: March 29, 1908, April 15, 1909, March
24, 1910. In 1907 it was seen on September 6.

85. Kentucky Warbler (Oporornis formosus).

This bird, which is a rather uncommon summer resident, was
first observed in 1909 on May 18. It was noted quite frequently
in the woods south of the campus. It has not been hitherto listed
as occurring at Chapel Hill.

86. Maryland Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas trichas).
The first migrants were noted as follows: April 4, 1908,

March 29, 1909, April 2, 1910, April 23, 1911. In 1907 it
was last seen on October 14, in 1908 on October 19. I found
it not very common at Chapel Hill. It breeds here.

87. Yellow-breasted Chat (Ideria virens virens).

A very common species, resident in summer. Its appearance
was as follows: April 21, 1908, May 9, 1909, May 1, 1910.
In 1911 I saw none of these birds, although I looked for them
carefully until my departure on May 30.

88. Hooded Warbler (Wilsonia citrina).
Observed only on April 24, 1908, in Battle's Park.

89. Redstart {Setophaga ruticilla) .

Recorded in the spring on April 24, 1908, May 4, 1910: in

1912'\ I^^OTEs ON THE BiRDs OF Chapel Hill, N. C. 29

the fall, on September 14, 1907, and September 18, 1908. A
rather uncommon transient visitor.

90. Pipit (Anthus ruhescens).

Regularly observed in the winter, being very common at
times. Arrived on ^November 2 in 1908, on October 17 in
1910, and October 22 in 1911. I saw them as late as March 7
(1910). They were often seen near the railroad station and
in the athletic field.

91. Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos polyglottos).

This common, permanent resident was heard to sing in every
month except September. Its song, however, was heard most
in March and April. Often in the spring this peerless songster
would sing for hours at night on the campus.

92. Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) .

A common summer form, making his appearance in the
spring on April 16 to 20. Last seen in 1907 on October 14.

93. Brown Thrasher {Toxostoma rufum).

I did not see these birds earlier in the winter than February
14, although it is probable that they stay here in small numbers
all through the year. They begin to sing immediately on ap-
pearing, — the song being usually mistaken for that of the Mock-
ingbird. They become abundant during March, but fall off in
numbers after the wave of migrating birds has passed over.

94. Carolina Wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus) .
A very common resident all the year. Sings more or less

during the whole twelve months.

95. Winter Wren (Nannus liyemalis hyemalis).

A rather common winter bird. Arrived in 1907 on October
14. Remained in 1909 until April 15. Have not heard it sing
at Chapel Hill.

96. Brown Creeper (Certhia familiaris americana).

This bird was seen only in December, February and March.
Only in March does it become at all common. In 1909 it was
seen until March 23.

30 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

97. White-breasted iN^uthatch (Sitta carolinensis carolinensis) .
A very common permanent resident. The prolonged nasal

song of this I^iithatch begins to be heard frequently about the
middle of January. The song period reaches its maximum in
March or April.

98. Brown-headed l^uthatch {Sitta pusilla.)

A not uncommon permanent resident. I have seen immature
birds of the year.

99. Tufted Titmouse {Baeolophus hicolor).
This is a very common resident species.

100. Carolina Chickadee (Penthestes carolinensis carolinensis) .
Like the Titmouse, a very common permanent resident.

101. Golden-crowned Kinglet {Regulus satrapa satrapa).
Arrived in the fall on the following dates: October 15, 1907,

October 16, 1908, October 21, 1909, October 12, 1911. This
species remains in the pine forests around the village until near
the middle of April (April 11, 1908, April 14, 1910).

102. Ruby-crowned Kinglet (Regulus calendula calendula).
More of a transient visitor than a winter resident, being

rather common in October and March. In 1907 it arrived on
October 24, in 1908 on October 25. It arrived for its spring
stay on March 18 and was seen until April 21 in 1909. Again,
in 1911, this Kinglet was noted until April 23. Its song is
often heard during the spring.

103. Blue-gray Gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea caerulea).
This tiny bird comes usually from the south in the last part

of March. The average date of its appearance was March 30
(earliest, March 22, 1908). It is a common smiimer bird. In
1907 it was seen as late as September 23.

104. Wood Thrush (Hylocichla mustelina).

This handsome bird and its sweet song are characteristic of
the campus in spring and summer. The extreme length of its
stay was from April 8 (1909) to September 23 (1907). The
average time of its appearance in spring was April 13.

1912^ Notes on the Birds of Chapel Hill, IST. C. 31

105. Hermit Thrush (Hylocichla guttata pallasi).

This Thrush takes the place of the Wood Thrush when winter
approaches. It came on October 15 in 1907, and on November
2 in 1908. In 1909 the Hermit stayed until April 8. It is a
common winter bird but does not sing while here.

106. Kobin (Planesticus migratorius) .

A conspicuous resident on the campus, where it breeds. A
few remain at Chapel Hill all the year. In February and
March , however, the migrating birds reach here and their num-
bers increase very much. The Robin begins to sing toward the
end of January.

107. Bluebird (Sialis sialis sialis).

I found this bird common at Chapel Hill at all seasons of
the year. In February and March it is abundant on the campus.

The thirty-three species which follow have been previously
recorded at Chapel Hill.

1. Holboells Grebe (Colymhus holhoelli). One specimen

taken by Prof. Atkinson in 1877.

2. Pied-billed Grebe (Podilymhus podiceps). Recorded by

Mr. Pearson.

3. Loon (Gavia immer). There are two specimens in the

University collection with no date attached.

4. Wood Duck (Aix sponsa). Recorded by Mr. Pearson.

5. Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) . Recorded by Prof. At-

kinson.

6. Great Blue Heron {Ardea herodias herodias). Cata-

logued by Mr. Pearson.

7. Egret {Herodias egretta). One specimen shot by Mr.

Dedrick in 1894.

8. Sora (Porzana Carolina). One taken in November, 1887,

now in the University collection.

9. Coot {Fulica americana). One recorded by Prof. Atkin-

son on April 8, 1887.
10. Woodcock (Philohela minor). Catalogued by Mr. Pear-
son.

32 Journal of the Mitchell Society ^May

11. Wilsons Snipe {Gallinago delicata). Catalogued by Mr.

Pearson.

12. Solitary Sandpiper (Helodramas solitarius solitarius).

Listed by Prof. Atkinson.

13. Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris). Kecorded

by Mr. Pearson.

14. Marsh Hawk {Circus hudsonius) . Catalogued by Mr.

Pearson, one specimen being secured on April 5, 1899.

15. Coopers Hawk (Accipiter cooperi). Catalogued by Mr.

Pearson.

16. Broad-winged Hawk (Buteo platypterus). One specimen

recorded by Mr. Pearson.

17. Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus) .

One observed by Mr. Pearson.

18. Great Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus virginianus) . Cat-

alogued by Mr. Pearson.

19. Chuck-wills-widow {Antrostomus carolinensis) . One indi-

vidual heard by Mr. Pearson on May 20, 1899.

20. Horned Lark {Otocoris alpestris alpestris). Kecorded by

Mr. Pearson on November 23, 1898.

21. Kusty Blackbird {Euphagus carolinus). Catalogued by

Mr. Pearson. Two killed by Mr. Ivy Lewis on Febru-
ary 3, 1899.

22. Tree Sparrow {Spizella monticola monticola). Listed by

Prof. Atkinson.

23. Tree Swallow {Iridoprocne hicolor). Catalogued by Mr.

Pearson.

24. Worm-eating Warbler {Helmitheros vermivorus) . Cat-

alogued by Prof. Atkinson.

25. Magnolia Warbler {Dendroica magnolia). Two speci-

mens taken by Mr. Pearson in September, 1897.

26. Chestnut-sided Warbler {Dendroica pensijlvanica) . One

bird taken by Mr. Pearson on September 21, 1897.

27. Bay-breasted Warbler {Dendroica castanea). One taken

by Mr. Pearson on October 2, another on October 8,
1897.

1912] Notes on the Birds of Chapel Hill, 'N. C. 33

28. Blackburnian Warbler {Dendroica fusca). One bird

killed by Mr. Pearson on October 16, 1897.

29. Black-throated Green Warbler {Dendroica virens). Cat-

alogued by Mr. Pearson.

30. Water thrush (Seiunis novehoracensis noveboracensis).

Seen bj Mr. Pearson.

31. Ho\\s,eWrQn {Troglodytes aedon aedon). Listed by Prof.

Atkinson.

32. Veery {Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens). Listed by

Prof. Atkinson.

33. Olive-backed Thrush {HylocicJiIa ustulata swainsoni).

One specimen secured by Mr. Pearson on September 26,
another on October 9, 1897.

There are a number of species which probably occur at
Chapel Hill but have not been observed up to this time. Some
of these are Little Blue Heron {Florida caerulea), King Rail
{Rallus elegans), Black-billed Cuckoo {Coccyzus erythrophthal-
mus), Cowbird {Molothrus ater ater), Bank Swallow {Riparia
riparia), and Bed-breasted iSTuthatch {Sitta canadensis).

Ealeigh, :J^. C.

THE SEEDLINGS OF THE LIVE OAK AND
WHITE OAK.

By W. C. Cokee.

In the Plant World for May, 1911, Mr. Isaac Louis has an
interesting article on the germination of the acorn of Quercus
virginiana. So far as I know his figures of the live oak seed-
ling are the first published, but he overlooks the previous publi-
cation of most of the facts by others.

The appearance of a tuberous swelling on the root of the
seedling of this species was first discovered by Mr. William
St. J. Mazyck, of Georgeto^vn, South iCarolina, who, by letters
and specimens, called the attention of several botanists to the
fact. Among those he communicated with were Dr. George
Engelmann, of St. Louis, and Mr. Thomas Meehan, of Ger-
mantown, Pennsylvania. In the Transactions of the Academy
of Science of St. Louis, Vol. IV, 1880, Dr. Engelmann has an
article on "The Acorns and their Germination," which opens as
follows :

"The structure of the acorns and the germination of the
oaks seem to be so well known, that I did not pay much further
attention to it until my interest was excited by the information
that the germinating live-oak developed little tubers, well known
to the negro children, and greedily eaten by them. The notes
and specimens obtained from my South Carolina correspond-
ents, Messrs. H. W. Ravenel, W. St. J. Mazyck (who was the
first to notice this), and Dr. J. H. Mellichamp, enabled me to
examine the germinating live-oak and to compare it with other
oaks in this condition."

After describing the usual process of sprouting in oaks he
says:

"The process in Q. virens^ is essentially the same ; it differs
somewhat in that the connate stalk of the cotyledons remains
more slender, but elongates more, mostly to the extent of one
inch or even more; the cuticle and the upper part of the root

^Quercus virens Ait is another name for the live oak, Quercus virginiana Mill.

34

1912'] Live Oak and White Oak Seedlings 35

swells up at once, while the developing plumule forces its waj up
through a slit in the base of the stalk. It seems that the danger
of losing connection with the storehouse of the cotyledonous
mass through the long and slender passage of the stalk, necessi-
tates the transfer of the food-matter to a nearer and safer place
of deposit. But whj, it may be asked, is the connection so
much longer and more slender than in the other oaks? At all
events it suffices, so long as it is fresh and unimpaired, to carry
over in a very short time the starchy and sweet contents from
the cotyledons to the tuber; and before the ascending axis is
an inch high and bears as yet only a few minute bracts, the
tuber is already forming and it soon reaches the size of the
cotyledons themselves ; it is, however, longer and more slender,
of a fusiform shape, about three or four lines thick and one or
two inches long, attenuated below into the long tap-root."

"The whole process is similar to the germination of the
cucurbitaceous Magarrhiza of California, so beautifully illus-
trated by Gray in his structural Botany; with this difference,
that the cotyledons in that plant are raised above the ground,^
while in ours they remain hypogaeous, and that the stalk is
even longer, and is, together with the cotyledons, readily sep-
arable into its two component parts. In both plants a tuber
forms at once by the transfer of the food-matter from the coty-
ledons to the radical; in the herbaceous Megarrhiza the tuber
becomes a permanent organ of immense size, while in the ar-
boreous live-oak it is finally merged into the root."

It may be of interest, also, to give two of Dr. Engelmann's
letters to Mr. Mazyck (not before published), in which this
subject is referred to. On March 10th, 1880, he writes:

"Wm. St. J. Mazyck, Esq.,

Dear Sir: — You will find from a little paper which I pub-
lished in the St. Louis Academy Transactions, and which I
will send in a few days, that I studied not only the germination
but also the structure of the acorn itself and find in it an inter-
esting character.

- "But only exceptionally" is the foot note at this point by the editors of
Dr. Engelmann's collected works.

36 Journal of the Mitchell Society '[May

I forget how far I entered into this matter in my last, of Feb.
21st, but if I should repeat myself here you will forgive me.

You know how a bean and a pea germinate : both with thick
fleshy cotyledons which do not expand into leaves, as many
plants do. The diiference between them is that the cotyledons
of the pea remain under ground, while the bean's are elevated
on the stem above it.

Well, the acorns behave like the pea, but the cotyledons re-
main enclosed in the shell while their stems or stalks, or peti-
oles come out and enclose between them the stem which grows
up. If you pick up any seedling oak, you will find it so, and
removing the shell, you can separate the cotyledons from one an-
other and examine the whole arrangement.

In most white-oaks the stems are longer, in the black-oaks
shorter, and that is already seen in the acorn itself. In the
live-oak it is longest already within the acorn, and in all of them
it lengthens in germination more or less.

The question with me now is, how soon does the tuber in the
live-oak swell and how long does it last.

I suppose that it begins to swell immediately when formed,
attaining its full size, perhaps, in the fall, or it may grow for
several years. I have a young live-oak, apparently three years
old, with the biggest tuber I have ever seen.

And I suspect that the tuber is hardly absorbed but gradually
merged into the root "

On April 7th, 1880, he writes again:

"Wm. St. J. Mazyck, Esq.,

Dear Sir: — Enclosed please find the results of my studying
of the germination of acorns and of their structure.

In regard to the germinating Q. virens we ought to know yet:

1st. How soon the tuber forms : from your many accounts I
judge that it forms before any leaves are developed.

2nd. When the cotyledons are exhausted and what relation
their increase bears to the increase of the tuber.

How long the tuber continues to grow larger, and at what age
of the plant it becomes merged in the root or base of the trunk.

I have a specimen about four or five years old, in which the
tuber is the largest of any I have ever seen, but, of course, hard
and ligneous.

Seedlings of Live Oak.

1912~\ Live Oak and White Oak Seedlings 37

By examining other acorns but those of the live-oak you will
be able to find out what by my description is meant."

Mr. Thomas Meehan, a well known horticulturist of that
time, also gave an account of the live-oak seedling, before the
Philadeli^hia Academy of ISTatural Science. In the Society's
Transactions for the year 1880, pages 128 and 129, we find
the following :

"Mr. Thomas Meehan referred to some interesting facts in
the germination of Quercus virens, as brought to his attention
by W. St. J. Mazyck, of Georgetown, S. C. It was generally
known that in this species the cotyledons did not divide into
two lobes as usual in acorns, but seemed to be one solid mass,
without any trace of division. In germination, however, two
petioles were developed as in other acorns, but instead of these
being very short, indeed nearly sessile, as in the ordinary white-
oak, they were produced apparently in the much advanced
specimen sent by Mr. Mazyck to one and one-half inches in
length before the plumule and hypocotyledenary portions of
the embryo commenced their growth. In respect to the latter,
a small ovate striate tuber, apparently, as one might judge from
the shrivelled specimens on hand, nearly one-fourth the size
of the acorn, was formed, and from the tuber the rad-
icle proceeded, and, afterwards the plumule on its upward
growth

"Mr. Edward Potts, at the request of Mr. Meehan, had made
sections of both the acorns and the spindle-shaped radicle,
with the results of finding the cell structure of the latter an
almost exact counterpart of that of the nut: i. e., sub-spherical
■cells of uniform size, gorged with starch grains. So similar
were they that it would be nearly impossible for an observer
to say which 'he was examining but for the cortical tissue sur-
rounding the root. It seemed that the food supply of the young
plant had been thus withdrawn from a portion exposed to hot
sun and drying winds to be protected by the earth and in the
direct line of growth. E^o line of specialized cells could be
discovered in the sections of the nut, indicating the possibility
of separation as in other species into two cotyledons; so that
to all intents and purposes it might be called monocotyledon-
ous."

38 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

In an unpublished letter, of February 6, 1880, to Mr.
Mazyck, Mr. Meeban says :

"I am very much obliged by your letter and samj^les of live-
oak. I knew before that this species is monocotyledonous, and
that the development of the radicle and ultimately plumule, is
as you describe. Other oaks have somewhat the same character,
but not the same degree. But I did not know of the swelling
of the radicle. I shall call the attention of the Academy of
Science to this interesting fact at its next meeting. ..."

In a later letter (February 29, 1880) we find the following :

'' . . . The acorn matter was very interesting to the
members. Some examinations of other species have since been
made, and it is found that so far as the lengthening of the
petioles of the cotyledon is concerned, many have it to a greater
or less degree, and the discovery of yours will be of very great
value in the determination of the species. Drawings will be
made and published of many species, but I made a formal ad-
dress before the Academy at its meeting on last Tuesday even-
ing, so that the discovery may be placed on record to your
credit. It may be some months before this is published officially
by the Academy, but as soon as it is I will send you a copy.

One of the tubers was examined microscopically by Mr.
Potts of the Microscopical Section, and found to contain starch
granules of precisely the same character as those of the original
cotyledon.

Thanking you for your interesting facts, I am.
Very truly yours,

Thomas Meehan^
2nd Vice-President Academy of
Natural Science of Philadelphia

In my article on Dr. Mellichamp (Journal of the Elisha
Mitchell Scientific Society, May, 1911), I published, on page
50, a letter of Dr. Mellichamp's which is concerned in part with
this matter. He says :

"If I could only have received these queries when I was last
in Bluffton I could have answered them accurately, but now
I cannot do so, and I do not wish to trust to my memory of some
years back when I not only planted the live-oak acorns, but

1912] Live Oak axd White Oak Seedlings 39

examined the yoimg roots after a year or two and even reported
the results to my dear friend Engelinann, of St. Louis, who
had been put on the track by Wm. St. J. Mazyck, who spent a
pleasant morning with me at the mill, when 1 was last at
Charleston. ..."

As Mr. Lewis did not publish any late stages of the seedlings,
it may be of interest to show the accompanying photograph
(Plate II), of three seedlings about fifteen months old taken
by me last fall. The plant in the center shows the interesting
peculiarity of having a cluster of small tubers Instead of a
single large one.

In one of the above quotations from Dr. Engelmann he asks
why the petiole of the cotyledons should be so much longer in the
live-oak than in the other oaks. The answer is probably to be
found, as suggested in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia
Academy, and as expressed by Mr. Lewis, in the "advantages
to the plant in establishing itself in the semi-arid situations
in which it is often found." In the South-Eastern States at
least the live-oak is partial to very sandy soils near the shore,
and such soils are necessarily subject to rapid surface desicca-
tion. Retention of the food stuff in the cotyledons for a long
time would be dangerous, as the cotyledons might be prema-
turely dried and killed.

In regard to the association of fused cotyledons and the
tuberous habit, there is a very interesting analogy, that does
not seem to have been noticed before, between the live-oak and
a number of other dicotyledons. In the development of her
theory of the origin of monocotyledons. Miss Ethel Sargant has
clearly brought out the existence of a close correlation between
the geophilous^ habit and a fusion of the cotyledons. In the Bo-
tanical Gazette, for May, 1904, Miss Sargant- has an article on
"The Evolution of the Monocotyledons," in which she writes as
follows in regard to dicots with fused cotyledons :

^ The live oak does not, technically, come under Prof. Areschong's definition
of a geophilous plant, as it does not periodically lose its above-ground parts ;
but it is, nevertheless, a geophilous plant in its youth.

- See, also. Miss Sarganfs more recent article in Annals of Botany, Vol.
XXII, p. 121, 1908, where the literature is given.

40 Journal of the Mitchell Society l^^ciy

"Thej belong to eight genera which are systematically scat-
tered, for they represent six families, Ranunclaceae , Fumar-
iacea, Umbelliferae, Primulacae, Lentihularieae [sic]^ Nyctag-
ineae. Clearly these species cannot have inherited the peculiar
form of their seedling from a common ancestor. It must be due
to similar external conditions affecting certain species of very
different descent in the same way.

"One feature is common to all of the pseudo-monocotyledons
in my list — they all possess some underground member which
is thickened into a tuber. In Ranunculus Ficaria one of the
earlier cauline roots became tuberous ; in the other species the
hyi^ocotyl is more or less thickened.

"Moreover, the most complete list I can make of dicotyledons
with their cotyledons partially united for some distance from
the base upwards included twenty genera. It contains but one
genus — Rhizophora — in which the hypocotyl is not very much
shortened, if not actually thickened. In the great majority the
hypocotyl becomes a conspicuous tuber. The seeds of the
single exception germinate under peculiar conditions, which
would account for most any amount of modification in the
structure of the seedling "

And a little further on, she says :

"The formation of assimilating organs in the seedling of a
geophilous plant is, however, very greatly limited by the short-
ness of the growing season and the necessary formation of sub-
terranean organs. Here lies the explanation we are seeking:
the reduction of the cotyledons and the formation of a tuber
are both adaptations to the geophilous habit "

Is it not remarkable that these observations should apply so
exactly to Quercus virginiana, the oak which shows the strong-
est tendency^ to the geophilous habit ?

In the Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXXVII, p. 62, I published
a drawing of an acorn Quercus Prinus L. from which three
healthy young plants were sprouting. Most of the acorns from
the same tree were also multiseeded. There is in Chapel Hill,

^AU oaks show a slight tendency towards the geophilous habit in the con-
centration of the early growth in the root, and Englemann mentions the oc-
casional fusion of the cotyledons in Quercus pungens, a shrub of dry regions
in the West.

Plate III

Seedlings of White Oak.

1912} Live Oak and White Oak Seedlings 41

N. C, a magnificent tree of Quercus alba L. that shows the
same peculiarity. Through a number of years I have watched
this tree and there are always a large proportion of its acorns
that contain two or three young plants. A further point of in-
terest is that the seedlings from these acorns show a strong ten-
dency to put out branches from the axils of the cotyledons.
Three of these young plants, all from multiseeded acorns, are
shown in plate III. Each has an additional shoot springing from
one cotyledonary bud. Usually only one of the two auxiliary
buds grows, but there is frequently an effort to put out both
buds, the second rarely reaching more than a centimeter in
length. As a result of this combination of peculiarities it
might happen that if there were three embryos and each pro-
duced a bud from its cotyledon, as many as nine shoots would
appear above the ground from a single acorn. It is probable,
however, that this never occurs, and the largest number I have
ever seen is five, consisting of three primary shoots and a bud
from one cotyledon of two of them.

There is evidently a correlation between this tendency to
multiseeded acorns and the formation of buds at the cotyledons,
both being the result of an unusual tendency towards fecundity
or proliferation that is inherent in the nature of this tree.

Among the three seedlings shown in the photograph, the one
to the right exhibits a still further peculiarity. Several latteral
roots have appeared on the hipicotyl — a most unusual occur-
rence for the oak. These roots may be seen coming from the
stem as far up as three-quarters of a centimeter above the at-
tachment of the cotyledons.

Chapel Hill, InT. C.

AX EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF INVERTED
RETINAL IMAGES*

By a. H. Patterson

It is usually somewhat mystifying to be told that all up-
right objects, such as trees, men walking, etc., form inverted
or upside-down images on the retina of the eye. However,
it is easy to construct a simple bit of apparatus which will
prove the point in question. But first we must understand
clearly one or two principles of the action of light rays.

Take a sheet of cardboard S and pierce in it a small hole
about one-tenth of an inch in diameter. In front of it place
a lighted candle, and behind it a cardboard screen S\ On
this latter screen will be seen an inverted image of the candle
— a so-called "pin-hole image." Now j)lace the candle quite
close to the screen 8 and let its light shine through the small
hole upon the screen S\ Then take a third cardboard screen
S'\ from the middle of which is cut a hole 1 inch in
diameter, and place it between the two screens ^S and S\
The divergent pencil of rays coming through the hole
in ^S* and the inch hole in S" will illuminate a
circular area on the screen S' slightly more than an inch in
diameter. Take some object, say a small cross, and hold it
upright before the hole in S". It will cast a shadow in the
circular lighted area on screen 8\ and this shadow will be
upright. There is no reason why it should be otherwise. If,
now, a double convex lens is held behind the hole in screen 8'\
the size of the lighted area and the cruciform shadow on 8'
will be altered, but the shadow will still be upright.

NoAv for our experiment. Construct of thin pieces of wood
a frame like that shown in the drawing. The distance AB
is about 7 inches; the hole C is about one-tenth of an inch in
diameter, and DE is piece of white letter paper about
4 inches square, pasted over the wooden upright at the
left. At i^ a tiny hole is pierced through the paper with an

♦■Reprinted from the Scientific American, June 3, 1911.

42

1912']

Proof of Inveeted Images

43

ordinary pin. Now stick a pin upright in the block G and
adjust the position of the block so that the head of the pin is
exactly in line between the holes C and F, and three-fourths
of an inch from the hole C. Fix the block G in this position.
This completes our apparatus. Placing the eye close to the
hole C and looking through hole F at the sky, we see a lighted

circular area with the shadow of the pinhead in its center,
but this shadow is inverted. We are ready to declare that
the pin is upside down, for it certainly looks so. When we
reflect a moment, however, we see that we have now exactly
the same arrangement as in the middle diagram. The hole F
represents the hole in the screen 8, the pinhead represents
the cross, the pupil of the eye represents the hole in screen
S'', and the retina of the eye takes the place of screen S' and
receives the upright shadow of the pinhead upon it. The
crystalline lens of the eye acts precisely like the lens in Fig.
2, altering the size of the retinal shadow, but not its upright

44 Journal of the Mitchell Society \^May

position. This upright shadow on the retina, however, makes
us think that the object throwing it is inverted, for the shadow
certainly "looks" inverted to us. But we know that the object
throwing the shadow is upright, and it follows in consequence
that the retinal images of upright objects are inverted. In using
this apparatus the eye must not be focussed on the pin, or the
hole F, but on something distant, like the clouds or the twigs
of trees between the observer and the sky.

Chapel Hill, IST. C.

VOL. XXVIII AUGUST, 1912

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C, U. S. A.

TO BK ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND-CLASS MATIEK

'v f.- rili,^ ■^Ui,:'?:..'^.>' '^,.

vm-:m^mM

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

WILUAM deB. MacNIDER, President
ARCHIBALD HENDERSON. Vice-President
K. A. HALL, Recording Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

Editors of the Journal :

W. C. COKER

J. M. BELL, - A. H. PATTERSON

CONTENTS

Vi.-nn. Ki)i,\os or the Eleventh Annual Meeting of

I ME I^OETII CaEOLINA AcADEMY OF SciENCE . ... 45

Zoology in America, Befoee the Peesent Period —

B. V. Wilson 54

^XOTE ON THE FUNDAMENTAL BaSES OF DYNAMICS Wm.

(Jain 68

]\'0TES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MoRE CoMMON

Bivalves of Beaufort, JST. C. — Henry D. Aller. ... 76
Tin: Gloomy Scale an Enemy of Shade Trees — Z. P.

Metcrdf 88

(,'ArTURE OF Raleigh by the Wharf Eat— C. S. Brimley 92
Viable Bermuda Grass Seed Produced in the Local-
ity OF Ealeigh, N". C. — 0. I. Tillman 95

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly. Price
S2.00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
I'niversity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XXVIII AUGUST, 1912 No. 2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELEVENTH ANNUAL

MEETING OF THE NORTH CAROLINA

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Held at the University of North Carolina^ Chapel Hill^
N. C, Friday and Saturday, April 26-27, 1912.

The Executive Committee met at 2.30 p. m., Friday, April
26, there being present Pres. H. V. Wilson and Sec'y E. W.
Giidger ex officio, and Prof. A. H. Patterson, Dr. J. J. Wolfe,
and Mr. F. Sherman, Jr. The Secretary reported that during
1911 ten members had withdrawn or been dropped for non-
payment of dues, six new members had been added, and one
old member reinstated on payment of back dues, making a
total membership of 85 on Jan. 1, 1912. The Secretary also
read his financial statement.

The following new members were then unanimously elected;

(1) E. E. Balcomb, professor of Agriculture, State Normal
College.

(2) T. A. Bendrat, Instructor in Geology, University of
North Carolina.

(3) W. H. Booker, Assistant Secretary State Board of
Health.

(4) Dr. H. R. Fulton, Professor of Botany and Plant Pa-
thology, Agricultural and Mechanical iCollege.

(5) D. R. A. Hall, Associate Professor of Chemistry, Uni-
versity of North Carolina.

At 3 p. m. President Wilson Called the Academy to order
and appointed the following committees :

45

46 JOTJKNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY \_AugUSt

Nominating — Collier Cobb, Z. P. Metcalf , and C. A. Shore.
Auditing — J. J. Wolfe, A. H. Patterson, and C. S. Brimley.
Resolutions — F. Sherman, Jr., E. W. Gudger, and W. A.
Withers.

The reading of papers was then begun and continued until
adjournment at 5 :30 p. m., at which time eleven had been
finished.

At 8 p. m. the Academy reassembled in Chemistry Hall and
was cordially welcomed to Chapel Hill by President F. P. Ven-
able, of the University of North Carolina. President Wilson,
of the Academy, after responding to the address of welcome,
then delivered the Presidential Address : " Zoology in America
Before the Present Period." The hall then being darkened,
Prof. A. H. Patterson gave a beautiful demonstration of lumi-
nous electric waves. Next, by sj)ecial invitation. Dr. Thomas
W. Pritchard gave his paper on "Wood Distillation." This
being a new and important industry for our state was of much
general interest to the members of the North iCarolina Section
of the American Chemical Society. At the same hour, Dr. W.
S. Kankin, Secretary State Board of Health, delivered a lecture
on " Hygiene and Sanitation" before the student body of the
University, in Gerrard Hall.

The Academy then adjourned to attend the smoker given by
the local members at the hospitable home of Dr. Isaac H. Man-
ning, while the ladies in attendance were entertained at a recep-
tion by Mrs. Dr. Lawson.

The Academy reconvened at 9 :10 a. m., Saturday morning,
in annual business meeting. The minutes of the last meeting
were read and approved.

The Nominating Committee reported for officers for 1912-13 :
President, Mr. C. S. Brimley, Naturalist, Raleigh ; Vice-Pres-
ident, Prof. John F. Lanneau, Professor of Astronomy, Wake
Forest College; Secretary-Treasurer, Dr. E. W. Gudger, Pro-
fessor of Biology and Geology, State Normal College. Addi-
tional members of the Executive Committee: Prof. Julian
Blanchard, Professor of Engineering, Trinity College, Dur-
ham; Mr. S. C. Clapp, Orchard and Nursery Inspector, State

1912'] Proceedings IST. C. Academy of Science 47

Department of Agriciilture, Raleigh; Dr. John A. Ferrell,
Secretary for Hookworm, State Board of Health, Ealeigh. The
nominations were adopted unaiiimouslj.

The Auditing iCommittee reported the Treasurer's statement
correct, and it was ordered printed in the minutes.

receipts

Balance last audit $183.58

Dues paid 1912 99.00

Interest Savings Bank Deposit 5.39

Total $287.97

Expenses 94.97

Balance $193.00

EXPENDITURES

Printing $ 5.50

Proceedings 75.00

Type Writing 2.35

Stamped Envelopes 12.12

$ 94.97

RESOURCES

Savings Bank Balance $138.68

Checking Bank Balance 54.32

Total $193.00

Dues unpaid, 1912 25.00

Stamped Envelopes on hand 7.50

$225.50
Less Outstanding Debts 82.00

Estimated Balance $143.50

OUTSTANDING DEBTS

Proceedings, 1911-12 $ 75.00

Miscellaneous (about) 7.00

$ 82.00

48 Journal of the Mitchell Society [August

The Committee on Resolutions moved: That we hereby ex-
press our sincere thanks to the University for granting us the
use of appropriate rooms for our meetings ; to the Faculty and
ladies for their kindly attentions ; and to Dr. Isaac Manning
for the pleasant smoker of last evening. And this was carried
unanimously.

At the suggestion of Professor Edwards, and on motion of
Professor Patterson, the President appointed a committee to
work up and bring before the Academy, at its next annual meet-
ing, a report on ventilation of school houses, churches, court-
houses, theatres, and other public buildings in our state. After
consideration by the Academy, it is hoped that we may be able
to make recommendations to the State Legislature with regard
to laws on ventilation. The committee consists of Prof. C. W.
Edwards, Professor of Physics, Trinity College; Prof. A. H.
Patterson, Professor of Physics, University of North Carolina ;
and Dr. C. A. Shore, Director State Laboratory of Hygiene.

At 9 :30, by special arrangement between the Secretaries of
the two bodies, there was held a joint meeting of the Academy
and the l^orth Carolina Section of the American Chemical
Society, at which Dr. J. E. Mills gave his " Report on Molecu-
lar Attraction and Gravitation," and the chemical papers on the
program of the Academy were read. The Chemists then ad-
journed to hold their stated meeting, and the reading of papers
was continued in the Academy until adjournment for luncheon
at 1 :30, at which time twenty-five papers had been read. On
reconvening after luncheon the consideration of papers was
completed, and adjournment had at 3 :20 p. m.

The following members were in attendance : Bendrat, T. A. ;
Blanchard, Julian ; Booker, W. H. ; Brimley, C. S. ; Cain,
William; .Clapp, S. C. ; Cobb, Collier; Daggett, P. H. ; Ed-
wards, C. W. ; Ferrell, J. W. ; Gudger, E. W. ; Hall, R. A. ;
Herty, C. H. ; Hutt, W. K ; Ives, J. D. ; Lay, G. W. ; Lock-
hart, L. B. ; Metcalf , Z. P. ; Metcalf , Mrs. Z. P. ; Mills, J. E. ;
Patterson, A. H. ; Rankin, W. S. ; Sherman, Franklin, Jr;
Shore, C. A. ; Tillman, Miss O. I. ; Venable, F. P. ; Wheeler,

IQIS} Proceedings N. C. Academy of Science 49

A. S. ; Wilson, G. W. ; Wilson, H. V. ; Withers, W. A. ; Wolfe,
J. J. — 31 out of a total membership of 90.

In addition to the Presidential Address, and the demonstra-
tion of electric waves, the papers on the Academy's program
numbered twenty-nine. Of these four were read by title, one
was reported on by President Wilson in the absence of the mem-
ber, and the others were all read in order as shown on the pro-
gram. Two things characterized the meeting: First, the num-
ber of papers dealing with hygiene, sanitation, and public
health; and second, the discussions which followed the presen-
tation of nearly every paper on the program.

In addition to the Presidential Address and the demonstra-
tion of electric waves, the following papers were presented :

Notes on the Distribution of the More Common Bivalves of
Beaufort, N. C, Henry D. AUer.
[Published in full in this issue.]

The Relation of Vital Statistics to Public Health Work, Warren
H. Booker.

Further Notes on the Yellow Fever Mosquito at Raleigh, C. S.
Brimley.

Althou^'h this species was common in my vicinity in 1910, it
was ten times more abundant last year (1911).

In the early part of the season it appeared to be mostly con-
fined to the southern half of the city, and mainly to the eastern
half of that ; later on, it spread j)ractically all over Raleigh,
having reached the city limits on Hillsboro street in the west,
and nearly as far on Glenwood avenue in the northwest. At
both these places, however, it only occurred in small numbers.
Over the major portion, however, of Raleigh it was very abund-
ant and annoying from August to October inclusive, while at
my house it was noted from late July to mid-JSTovember.

Unlike other mosquitoes, it bites in the daytime, even during
the period of brightest sunshine, and appeared to show a decided
inclination to bite people on the ankles, so that the wearers of

50 JoTJRlSrAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY \^Augilst

low-cut shoes suffered more than other people. Only the females
were observed to bite, but the males were also noted to come
around a sleefting child when protected with mosquito netting,
and to perch on the netting as if they also wished to bite. l!^one
of this sex, however, was found with the bodies distended with
blood. The sexes were present in about equal numbers.

Occasional specimens of this species have been taken in the
past, and in 1910 they were common, increasing vastly in
numbers in 1911. ISTow, what Avas the cause of this ? I sur-
mise that the series of mild ^vinters preceding 1911 was one
cause why this southern species got such a foothold. Another
reason, I believe, was that owing to the drought, the rain-water
barrels used by negroes stayed undisturbed for several weeks
with just enough water in them to keep them from falling
apart, and as, of course, no water was drawn from them and
none ran in, the mosquitoes had an excellent opportunity to
breed imdisturbed, and it takes a very little water to supply
breeding places for thousands of these little pests.

Some Records of Incipient Fern Growth in Carboniferous
Time, Collier Cobb.

Race Preservation^ Geo. W. Lay.

Notes on the Larvae of the Marhled Salamander, E. W. Gudger.

Larvae II/2 to 214 inches long, with external gills, have been
taken in brooks in the college park for several years past. This
spring some thirty or forty were taken in a muddy pool in the
same park. When caught these were nearly colorless, but when
exposed to the light in aquaria set before windows in the lab-
oratory they very quickly became pigmented. These were first
thought to be the young of the common salamander, which had
retained their gills over winter, but discussion of the paper
elicited the interesting information from Mr. C. S. Brimley
that the Marbled Salamander lays its eggs in the fall, these
are hatched and the larvae retain their gills over winter, losing
them in the late spring. Some kept by the writer for a month
now show only stumps of these structures.

1912] Proceedings IST. C. Ac^vdemy of Science 51

The Seedling of the Live Oak, W. C. Coker.

[Published in full in this Journal for May, 1912.]

Notes on Mutation, W. IST. Hutt.

The Effect of Temperature on the Contact Resistance of Car-
bon, P. H. Daggett.

The Gloomy Scale, an Important Enemy of Shade Maples in
North Carolina, Z. P. Metcalf.
[Published in full in this issue.]

The Dispensary as a Factor in the Prevention and Cure of
Hoohworm Disease, John W. Ferrell.
[Published in full in this issue.]

Two Parasitic Hymenomycetes, Guy West Wilson.

Attention is called to the attacks on apples in the Piedmont
section of the state by Septohasidium pedicellatum (Schw.) Pat.
which also occurs over a considerable area of the Southern
states on various hosts. Fomes roseus (Albert & Schw.) Cooke,
is also noted as causing a disease of the red cedar, locally very
destructive in Eastern ISTorth Carolina.

The Toxicity of Cotton Seed Meal, W. A. Withers and B. J.
Ray, with the co-operation of E. S. Curtis and G. A. Roberts.

The ^Yalden Inversion, Alvin S. Wheeler.

Note on the Fundamental Basis of Dynamics, William Cain.

[Published in full in this issue.]

Discovery of some new petroglyphs Near Caicara on the Ori-^
noco,T. N. Bendrat.

In the winter of 1908 and '09, while surveying the region
about Caicara, Venezuela, the writer discovered some new pet-
roglyphs which belong, geographically and genetically, to the

52 JOUKNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY \_AugUSt

same large group of stone-carvings found scattered over a wide
area which is bounded by the Orinoco, the Atabapo, the Rio
Negro, and the Cassiquiare. While Alexander von Humboldt
mentions only two petroglyphs from the region of Caicara,
"el sol" and "la luna," of which the writer saw only "el sol,"
neither he nor any other traveler who ever touched that point
seem to have known any of the stone-carvings found by the
writer. These newly discovered petroglyphs occur on the banks
of the Orinoco and in the adj acent forest. They may be divided
up into three distinct groups, one representing the simplest type
and consisting of almost geometrical circles, one in the other,
the center of the most inner one being hollowed out; another
group of a more complicated type and of more fantastic
design, of which only one figure was found ; and a third group
that evedently represents the highest type in the development
of this art of petroglyphy and that comprises "el sol," that was
already known to Humboldt, and the new petroglyph that was
discovered by the writer, namely "el tigre." All these petro-
glyphs are supposed to have been produced in prehistoric times.
As to their meaning there exists quite a number of theories.
The writer holds the view, on the base of extended studies in
f etichism, that they represent records of earlier and later fetich-
ism, while they have served, at the same time, as an indirect
means to develop the art of sculpture that grew out of the art
of petroglyphy.

The Work of the State Laboratory of Hygiene, C A. Shore.

8o7ne Reduction Phenomena in Hydroids, H. V. Wilson.

Some New Questions Concerning Ventilation, C. W. Edwards.

Solution of the Draftsman's Difficulty, John F. Lanneau.

George Marcgrave, the First Student of American Natural
History, E. W. Gudger.

George Marcgrave was a member of the Dutch expedition
to Brazil under Johann Moritz, Count of Nassau-Siegen, during
the first half of the seventeenth century. He assiduously

1912'] Proceedings N. C. Academy of Science 53

studied the animals and plants of Brazil during the yearsl638-
1644. In 1648 his drawings and observations, under the title
Historiae Rerum Naturalium Brasiliae were published jointly
with the De Mericina Brasiliensi of William Piso under the
general title Historia Naturalais Brasiliae. Marcgrave's part
of this work covers 303 folio pages, in which he describes 301
plants, with 200 figures and 367 animals, of which 222 were
figured. Of these 668 forms practically all were new to science
and probably none of the 422 figured had ever been drawn
before.

Marcgrave knew nothing of the classification of flowers based
on stamens and pistils, or of fishes by the count of fin rays, but
his descriptions are, for the times, remarkably clear and his
drawings sufficiently exact for the plant or animal to be unmis-
takably recognized. E'o country in its early exploration has
ever had such a great work published on its natural history.

A complete biography of Marcgrave is nearly finished and
will shortly be offered for publication.

Tfie Electrical Resistance of a Flowing Conductor, A. H. Pat-
terson and V. L. Shrisler.

Capture of Raleigh, N. C, hy the Wharf Rat, C. S. Brimley.
[Published in full in this issue.]

The Water Molds of Chapel Hill, N, C, W. C. Coker.

Further Notes on the Geology of the Carolina Coast Line,
Collier Cobb.

Transient Electrical Phenomena and their Relations to Modern
Problems in Electrical Engineering, P. H. Daggett.

The Toxic Action of Haematin and Bile, W. H. Brown.

Notes on the Maturing of Bermuda Grass Seed, 0. J. Tillman.
[Published in full in this issue.]

Studies of Cotton Seed Meal Intoxication as to Pyrophosphoric
Acid, W. A. Withers and B. J. Bay.

E. W. GuDGER, Secretary.

ZOOLOGY IN AMEEICA BEFORE THE PRESENT
PERIOD.*

By H. V. Wilson.

Zoology deals with the phenomena of animal life. A neces-
sary and usually early step in the progress of this science in
any quarter of the world is to discover and distinguish the
kinds of animals — the species, as we say — there found.
These in time become the objects of more and more intense and
analytical study.

The earliest extant record of our fauna, as far as I know,
consists of a series of water-color sketches made by John White,
a member of the expedition which made the first settlement on
Roanoke Island (1585), and governor of the second Roanoke
Island colony. White's pictures, now preserved in the British
Museum, show a number of our birds, fishes, insects, also plants
and the appearance of the native inhabitants. Even before this,
descriptions of some of our native forms, with specimens, had
reached learned Europeans interested in science.

In the seventeenth century the French missionaries gave
further information of this kind, included in the accounts of
their travels. A few of the settlers, too, were sufficiently
informed to deal with such matters. Thus John Winthrop, son
of the first governor of Massachusetts, and himself governor of
Connecticut, was a regular correspondent of the Royal Society.
We owe an early record entitled "New England's Rarities"
(1672) to an English traveller, John Josselyn, who mentions a
good many of our vertebrates, some mollusks and Crustacea,
also some lower forms such as the star-fish and sea-nettle (jelly
fish). Another Englishman, John Lawson, in his History of
North Carolina (1714), mentions a number of our animals.
His remarks concerning them are often interesting. Buffaloes,
he says, he has known to be killed on the hilly part of the Cape
Fear river. Beavers were numerous in North Carolina at that
time, and whales were abundant off the coast. He lists under

*Presidential address before the North Carolina Academy of Science, April 26, 1912.

54

1912'] Zoology in America 55

the insects ( !) alligators, some lizards, several snakes and tur-
tles. He mentions the bnll-frog and remarks on the character
of his voice. Lawson also mentions some invertebrates : craw-
fishes, ''mnscles," the stone crab, the common edible crab, clams,
the conch, and the peculiar egg cases of the latter.

Much the most comprehensive and valuable of the early ac-
counts of our fauna is to be found in Mark Catesby's Katural
History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands. This
great Avork was republished twice. The first volume of the first
edition came out in 1732. ,Catesby, an Englishman, spent sev-
eral years in this country, and in his beautiful folio plates we
find faithful pictures of many of our present wild neighbors.

The eighteenth century, which saw Franklin's remarkable
inquiries into the nature of electricity, brought out a few con-
tributions to zoology from native Americans. John Bartram,
more specially known as a botanist, should not be forgotten.
Bartram, who was a Quaker farmer in Pennsylvania, made
good observations on our plants, animals, and fossils. These are
described in a long series of letters (1734-1810) and in a jour-
nal. Most of Bartram's letters and his journal were sent to
Peter Collinson, an English naturalist, who communicated
selections to the Eoyal Society. Bartram was made King's
Botanist in 1765 with an annual salary of fifty pounds. It is
worthy of note that he was using a microscope in his study of
plants in 1754. John Bartram's son, William Bartram, was
a well known naturalist in his time. He published a volume
of Travels in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in 1791, and
is said to have assisted Wilson in the production of his Amer-
ican Ornithology. At the close of the eighteenth century we
also find natural history publications of some importance by
B. S. Barton.

In the early years of the nineteenth century (1808-14) ap-
peared an important w^ork, important even today, on our birds :
Wilson's Ornithology. Wilson was born and bred in Scotland.
Another foreigner. Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte, is the
author of an Ornithology supplementary to Wilson's. This
was published with some supervision from Americans, Say and

56 Journal of the Mitchell Society [August

Godman, 1825-33, in this country. One of the earliest techni-
cal papers of any considerable importance by a native Amer-
ican is Thomas Say's Crustacea of the United States (1817-18).
The first comprehensive work on natural history by a native
born American is Dr. Richard Harlan's Fauna Americana,
bearing the date 1825. This was followed by a valuable work
on insects, Thomas Say's American Entomology (1824-28), and
by Dr. John D. Godman's three volumes on N^orth American
mammals, (1826-28). Barton, Harlan, and Say were na-
tives of Philadelphia, and the two former taught in
medical schools in that city. Say's father was a physician
and apothecary. He himself was engaged in business,
unsuccessfully, in Philadelphia, and later in one of the
several attempts made to establish an ideal community — in
this case, in ISTew Harmony, Indiana. Godman was born in
Annapolis, Maryland, and taught in several medical schools.
These early naturalists have the personal interest attaching to
pioneers, and it will be seen that in America, as elsewhere,
zoology in its beginnings was frequently linked with the pro-
fession of medicine. The prominence of Philadelphia as an
early zoological centre should be noted. The Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences of that city, which has since become so famous,
was founded in 1812, Say joining the society in that year.

With the appearance of the works just mentioned, the study
of natural history, viz., the description of species with accounts
of habits and local distribution, was well under way. In 1827
Audubon began to publish his famous and beautifully illus-
trated volumes on the " Birds of America." Isaac Lea
started a long series of contributions on the classification, anat-
omy, and embryology of fresh water mussels in 1829. Say's
Shells of N'orth America appeared in 1830, Conrad's American
Marine Conchology in 1831. Nuttall's Manual of Ornithology
of the United States and Canada came out in 1832-34. The
four volumes of the first edition of Holbrook's ISTorth American
Herpetology were published 1836-40. This work, a well known
classic dealing with the amphibia and reptiles, and ranking
with Audubon's Birds among the early achievements of Amer-

19121 Zoology in Ameeica 57

can science, had for its author a South Carolinian, John Ed-
wards Holbrook, Professor of Anatomy in the Medical College
of the State of South Carolina. Holbrook was an excellent
naturalist, a man of eminence. We learn from his list of honors
that he was a member of the Royal Medical Society of Edin-
burgh, of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, and of the
Lyceums of Natural History in New York, Boston, and Balti-
more. It is noteworthy that in Philadelphia, New York, and
Boston the local lyceum or academy of that early time has
become a strong institution, supporting and publishing investi-
gations and serving as an instrumentality for the cultivation
of the public.

In the. decade of 1840-50 a number of works of importance
appeared. Much the most imposing is De Kay's Zoology of
New York in five large, well illustrated volumes. This widely
used work contains descriptions of all the animals known at the
time to occur mthin the state of New York, together with brief
descriptions of those occasionally found near the border of the
state. These volumes form a part of a general Natural History
of New York descriptive of minerals, geological formations,
soils, and of the plants and animals of the state. The publica-
tion was the outcome of the passage of a bill in 1836 calling for
a complete geological survey of the state. For the purposes of
this survey the sum of $130,000 was appropriated. The first
volume of the report was published in 1842. It includes a
description of the mammals, together with a long and histor-
ically interesting introduction which embodies a geographical
and political history of the state, together with sketches of its
colleges and schools, its press, its learned professions, laws, ma-
terial improvements, etc. The introduction includes also (I
quote) "an account of the studies and productions of our citi-
zens in the departments of history, classical learning, mathe-
matical science, pure and mixed biography, travels, romance
and general literature, poetry and the fine arts; and of re-
searches in our zoology, botany, meteorology, chemistry and
mineralogy; with an account of the inception, progress, and
consummation of the survey, to which those researches gave

58 Journal of the Mitchell Society [August

birth." The result is a picture of a strong, ambitious state,
moving rapidly along the path of jDrogress. Wm. H. Seward is
the author of the introduction and he remarks that ''This re-
view, although circumscribed and imperfect, furnishes gratify-
ing proof that a rej)ublican government is not unfavorable to
intellectual improvement." Seward, in speaking of the history
of geology and geological surveys in this country, calls to mind
(I quote) that "North (Carolina has the honor of having been
the first to send geologists into the field. Professor Olmstead's
report upon the economic geology of that state was published in
1825." I may add that the work of our State Survey in mak-
ing known the natural resources of North Carolina has kept
step with the general progress of the state since Olmstead's
time. It never was so efiicient as under the direction of its
present head, Dr. J. H. Pratt, and his immediate predecessor,
Dr. J. A. Holmes. As a pleasing piece of testimony, I call to
mind the beautiful volume on the Fishes of North Carolina, from
the pen of Dr. H. M. Smith, published in recent years as a state
document by the Survey. In leaving De Kay's Zoology, which
reflects such credit on a great state, let me mention that New
York at that time (U. S. Census 1840), contained only 2,428,-
921 inhabitants.

Shortly after De Kay's work, appeared (1846-49) J. D.
Dana's report on the Zoophytes of the Wilkes Exploring Expe-
dition which the U. S. Government had sent out into the
Pacific ocean, 1838-42. Dana's descriptions of these simple
marine forms made a volume which took place along with the
best European work of its sort. In the same decade appeared
Gould's Invert ebrata of Massachusetts (1841), Haldeman's
Monograph of the Pond-snails of the U. S. (1841-44), Audubon
and Bachman's Quadrupeds of America (three volumes, 1846-
54), Storer's Synopsis of the Fishes of North America (1846).

Up to this date the work of zoologists in America had been
almost completely restricted to the field of systematic zoology,
viz., they had been engaged in the description and classification
of species and, more incidentally, with habits and distribution.
In 1846 came the already famous Swiss naturalist, Louis

1912^ Zoology in America 59

Agassiz, to this conntry. He came primarily to deliver some
lectures in Boston. Agassiz's personality captivated the coun-
try and, although he freely criticised it, the country evidently
captivated him, for he remained here until his death in 1873,
refusing offers, of the most attractive kind, of posts in European
institutions. Agassiz himself was a systematic zoologist, a
describer and classifier of high rank, but he was much more.
He brought with him a practical familiarity with the problems
and points of view of morphological zoology which had been
engaging the attention of the great European naturalists for
decades. His mind and methods were comparative, and he
emphasized the importance of looking not so much at species,
as at the fundamental points of structure in the anatomy of
groups, the changes of form undergone during embryonic devel-
opment, and the structure of extinct forms. Moreover, he laid
stress on the importance of looking at these three sets of phe-
nomena together. He maintained more definitely than any of
his predecessors that the embryo passes through a series of
changes during which it resembles successively the lower mem-
bers of the great group or type to which it belongs ; and that
the fossils in any group as we proceed from the oldest to the
more recent, show a similar progress from simplicity to com-
plexity of structure. How like an argument for evolution all
this sounds ! But Louis Agassiz to the last held out against
evolution, and refused to see that the parallelisms or funda-
mental similarities between the series of fossils, of existing
forms, and of embryonic stages, were to be explained as the
result of kinship. Following Cuvier he looked on the history
of the world as divisible into a series of distinct epochs, each
of which was inaugurated by a special act of creation. The
several epochs "uath their living organisms were brought to a
close by tremendous, supernaturally induced disasters styled
cataclysms. Between the species of two epochs there could be,
he maintained, no kinship, no material or genetic connection.
Whatever resemblances existed between species were, to his
mind, purely ideal and due to the fact that organisms represent
the embodied thoughts of a superior power. This way of look-

60 JOUENAL OF THE MiTCHELL SOCIETY \_AugUSt

ing at the living world seems strangely archaic, poetic, to us
who have every reason to believe that all material phenomena
are clue to material causes, and that resemblances between nat-
ural species, living and fossil are material phenomena and of the
same kind as resemblances between such races as have been pro-
duced from a common stock through man's selective breeding.
Agassiz's interpretation of the parallelism between anatomical,
paleontological, and embryological facts, obviously must be
classed in that group of hypotheses which make immediate
appeal to hyperphysical powers in order to explain natural phe-
nomena.

But although today we can only look on Agassiz's theorizing
as we look on poetry, we see beneath this cloudy mantle a great
man and a master in science, one who exercised a strong and ben-
eficial influence on American zoology and American science in
general through his constant injunction to compare and so learn
what is general, what is fundamental.

As new ideas come into a science, new fields of investigation
are opened, but the old ones are not necessarily closed. And,
as we very well know, the study of systematic zoology did not
come to an end with the advent of the Agassiz period of com-
parison and transcendental interpretation, nor later with the
advent of the evolution idea, nor later still with the oncome of
the present era of analysis and experiment. On the contrary,
along with the rise and development of the many comparative
and experimental branches of modern zoology, the description
and tabulation of the earth's fauna has gone steadily on, and is
today progressing as actively as ever. It is pleasant to think
that members of our own society are helping in this piece of
the world's work. When we come to think how imperfect is our
knowledge, even today after so much labor, as to the kinds of
animals that live with us in garden and orchard, in wood and
meadow, in pond and stream, and above all in the sea, natural-
ists realize what a vast deal of work stands before the describers
and classifiers. Everywhere search reveals new forms. As to
the place of these in classification how difficult it often is to de-
cide. We know that species are not the immutable things Lin-

1912'] Zoology in America 61

naeus had in mind. They are only groups of individuals sub-
ject to the transforming influence of many factors. Ideally
the systematist when he lists his form should not only be able
to pick out its characteristic points, but through comparison of
many live individuals from different localities and through
experiment he should know whether such characteristics are
produced and maintained through the continuous action of
food, climate, or other environmental influences; or whether
they are ingrained in the constitution of the race, viz., hered-
itary, and so in some degree independent of the environment.
Should the characteristics prove hereditary, the relation of the
new form to other closely similar "kinds" should be determined,
before the form in question is listed as species, subspecies, mu-
tation, or what not. If the systematist should carry out this
ambitious program for all the kinds of animals he encounters,
his task would indeed be stupendous. For the most part he
must be content with listing his kinds in such wise as to make
it a known and accessible fact that a form of definite anatomical
peculiarities occurs in such and such a region. This done, he
has advanced science measurably, and may leave it to others, or
to himself in another capacity, to select from the vast mass of
species certain ones for intensive study of a comparative and
experimental character.

Many of the ablest and most highly praised pieces of zoolog-
ical work emanating from America have been memoirs in sys-
tematic zoology. But it should be added that such memoirs
show us that great success in classification requires a wide and
deep knowledge of the group to be handled. The classifier
should, above all, be familiar with the comparative anatomy
and embryology of the group, and with the periodic or other
modifications of structure incidental to function, habit, or
nature of the home. And this means that he must be familiar
with his forms as living animals, and that the size of the group
be not too large. As representative classics in American system-
atic zoology I may pick out for mention Audubon's Birds (1827-
38), Holbrook's Herpetology (1836-40), Dana's Crustacea of the
Wilkes Exploring Expedition (1852), Louis Agassiz's Memoirs

62 Journal of the Mitchell Society [August

on jelly fish and hydroids (1860-62), Leidy's Monograph on
the amoeboid protozoa or Rhizopods (1870), Alexander Agas-
siz's Revision of the sea-urchins (1872), and the three reports
by A. Agassiz, Lyman, and Brooks (1882-86), on the sea-ur-
chins, ophiuroids, and stomatopod Crustacea, collected by the
British ship "Challenger" on her famous voyage of scientifi.c
exploration.

One of Louis Agassiz's strong predilections was for the study
of embryology. The influence of his example and teaching in
Cambridge and in Charleston, during his winter visits to that
city, is apparent when we run through the list of American pub-
lications in zoology. Up to the time of Agassiz's arrival, practi-
cally no embryological investigations had been carried on in this
country. But now we find during the period 1846-73 a very
considerable number of investigations of this character going
on, emanating from Agassiz himself, his associates, students,
and ex-students. Agassiz studied the development of jelly fish,
hydroids, and turtles. McCrady made important observations
on the development of the jelly fish found in Charleston harbor.
Alexander Agassiz, the son of Louis, a great naturalist who has
but recently died, studied the development of ctenophores, star-
fishes, and annelid worms. Morse investigated the embryology
of the brachiopods. Packard made known striking facts in the
development of Limulus, the kingcrab or horse-shoe crab.

As it was with the study of embryology, so it was with the
study of fossils. Agassiz's comparisons awakened interest and
led to investigations. The most celebrated of these came from
Leidy, Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsyl-
vania, and dealt with the fossil vertebrates found imbedded
beneath our western plains. These studies of Leidy were the
precursors of a long series of discoveries made in later years,
especially by Cope, Marsh, and Osborn, which have told us
much about the ancient history of our western states.

When the study of embryology and the simpler animals be-
came occupations of intellectual interest in Europe, some of
the great naturalists like Johannes Miiller, Professor in Berlin,
began to make pilgrimages to the sea shore to study, especially

1912] Zoology in America 63

with the microscope, the wonderful phenomena of marine life.
Agassiz brought with him to this country the interest in the
sea and its organisms. This he spread, and in the last years
of his life brought to a focus in the establishment of his famous
summer school on the island of Penikese, the first of the marine
laboratories now to be found scattered along our Atlantic and
Pacific coasts. The Penikese laboratory exerted an immense
influence, but served its purpose and ceased to be, unlike that
other magnificent institution founded by Agassiz and developed
by his great son, the "Museum of Comparative Zoology at Har-
vard College."

In the midst of Agassiz's career in this country came the
publication of Darwin's Origin of Species (1859), and the
speedy adoption by the great bulk of the thinking world of the
theory of evolution. The ferment of the evolution idea shook
America as it did other countries. Similarities such as Agassiz
had been interpreting in poetic, transcendental fashion, became
matters of more practical concern. The past history of the
living world was opened to investigation, and with all the enthu-
siasm of explorers, ardent spirits on many sides began with
fresh energy to dig for fossils, to trace the changes of form
undergone by the egg in its course of development, to look for
transitional types filling up the gaps between groups, and to
study in detail the tissues and organs and plan of body of all
animals, low and high, that could tell us anything of general
interest about the kinship of groups. It takes an idea to make
men work, and evolution was the new idea, more stimulating,
more strengthening, as results came in, to the searcher than any
of its predecessors. The ancestral history or phylogeny of each
group was constructed and reconstructed, and reconstructed
again, as new data became available. The data were in kind
not different from the discoveries of fundamental similarities
of structure, familiar to biologists in the pre-evolutionary epoch,
but now they were discovered in places where the earlier nat-
uralists had not looked for them, and even between the great
groups or phyla sharp lines were wiped out. Above all the
volume of discovery streaming in soon became far greater than

64 JOUKNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SOCIETY \_AugUSt

in previous epochs. This remarkably intense interest in the
facts of structure, resulting in evolutionary interpretations in
the shape of race-histories or phylogenies, was the most dom-
inant force at work throughout the whole range of biology until
about 1890. In zoology especially most of the strong, keen
minds were active in such investigations.

Science consists primarily of demonstrable facts, arranged in
generalizations of more and more comprehensive scope, in such
wise as to expose the time relation between the antecedent
facts or cause and the sequent facts or effect. These generaliza-
tions glued together with theory make up in any age the con-
temporaneous body of science, which the members of that gen-
eration see in the mind's eye when they piece together all they
know or have some reason to believe in concerning material
phenomena. Naturally as generalizations widen, and theories are
verified, disproved, or changed, our mental picture of that
stately building of science (to borrow a favorite Germanism)
changes too. And so the picture drawn by those of a preceding
generation may look in many particulars strangely unlike that
which we see today, but if they were and we are good workers,
the next generation will see in the two pictures beneath the
superficial dissimilarities much the same basic framework of
lines. It is this well known use of theory which exposes us
sometimes to the dashing onset of the clever tongued and light
minded, who allege that we are no better than others, that we
too muddle up fact and fancy. Peace to the satirist and thanks,
if only he have humor and not mere impudence ! We do
not muddle, or at any rate (for we are only men) we try not to
muddle fact and fancy. Nevertheless we certainly eke out fact
with fancy, in the shape of hypotheses. But these we must
continually try out in the daily round of experience. Do obser-
vation and experiment confirm the fancy? we ask. And then
we find, or others find, that most of the hypotheses prove untrue
and are to be discarded. Some quickly prove true, and if for
these we continue to use the term "theory," we do so from habit.
So it is with the "cell theory," long ago demonstrated to be
fact. Others deal with phenomena of such a kind that we can

1912^ Zoology in America 65

not experimentallj demonstrate or disprove the theory in its
entirety. We then ask if any of the facts of observation and
experiment contradict the theory, or do they corroborate it in
that they prove explicable by it. And are there many such facts
and of diverse kinds ? In other words, have we worked with the
theory a long time and found it to hold good? If so, after a
time we practically cease to question it directly, and it comes
into a use that is habitual and almost reflex. So it is with the
theory of universal gravitation and so it is with the theory of
organic evolution.

A gulf separates Agassiz's theory from that of evolution,
and yet we must recognize that the actual investigations of the
earlier school, the solid discovery of demonstrable facts and
their formulation into generalizations, went on along much the
same lines as in the later period. We may therefore with justice
say that in America from about 1850 to 1890 it was the interest
in fundamental form that dominated zoology. This was the
great period of morphology to which zoology owes so much,
and which began in Europe in the early years of the nineteenth
century. Many of the most substantial results of biological
inquiry have resulted from this intense comparative study of
structure, adult and embryonic. That the body of all but the
simplest animals, the protozoa, is composed of tissues, and these
of microscopic units, the cells, each of which is comparable with
a protozoan ; that the egg from which a metazoan animal starts is
but a single cell, and that this by division produces many cells
which differentiate into the nerve, muscle, gland, and other
tissues ; that the cells early become arranged into two primary
layers, which as such make up the body of low metazoa (coe-
lenterates), but which in higher forms become infolded and out-
folded so as to give rise to many internal organs : these are fun-
damental discoveries which, as Oscar Hertwig has said, are the
answers to questions that baffled the most acute biologists and
philosophers of earlier ages.

The bulk of the discoveries of morphologists are, of course,
such as require for their comprehension some technical train-
ing. All I can say here is that this wealth of knowledge, so

QQ JOUKNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY [AuQUSt

compreliensive and detailed, forms an immense part of the
safe, secure basis on which rest all the biological inquiries of
today. As to the part that American zoologists have played in
the development of morphology, while it cannot be claimed that
they brought to light any of the very greatest generalizations,
comparable with those of von Baer, Rathke, Haeckel, and Kow-
alevsky, the world owes to them a large number of acute and
important investigations. In addition to the names I have
already mentioned in speaking of the progress of embryology,
two great Americans, who have recently died, should be referred
to here, W. K. Brooks and C. O. Whitman.

It must not be supposed that the work in descriptive mor-
phology is at an end. By no means ! There is so much to be
done that it will doubtless occupy many zoologists for centuries.
But as was the case earlier with systematic zoology, so later
with pure morphology: it no longer occupies the centre of
the stage.

In dealing with evolution I have spoken as if the effort had
been solely to reconstruct in the imagination the past world
and so to discover the kinship between groups and their place
in a natural classification. But along with this inquiry went
always the question. What were the agencies that have been at
work in the transformation of species ? This is perhaps the
question of more practical concern to us, for the agencies that
have been at work in the past are doubtless at work today. It
has been easier, however, to learn something fairly definite about
the course of evolution than it has been to determine the factors
at work. Moreover, it is doubtless true that a knowledge of
lines of ancestry will aid us in the inquiry into the nature of
these factors. It is not difficult then to understand why atten-
tion was concentrated so long on the data of comparative
morphology.

Zoologists and paleontologists have nevertheless speculated
abundantly on the causes of transformation, making use of such
knowledge as has been available. So in this country Cope,
Hyatt, and others have developed theories dealing with these
problems. The theories of Cope and Hyatt proceed in part

1912^ Zoology in America 67

along the lines laid down hj the great French zoologist, Lam-
arck, and assume that the changes induced in an individual by
habit and by the direct action of the environment are inherited.
Little, even today, is known on this head, and however suggestive
and valuable such theories are, it would seem that nothing cer-
tain can be learned from comparison alone. Darwin's theory
of natural selection, of the selective influence of the environ-
ment, helps us to understand one great, universal attribute of
organisms, viz., that structure in general is useful, is adaptive,
and again why the descendents of a species should tend to split
up into divergent races. But as to the underlying physiolog-
ical processes concerned in the production of the initial differ-
ences between individuals, on which selection operates, it tells
us nothing. Nor does it give us information which would enable
us even to pick out with certainty the kinds of initial differences
on which selection can ojjerate. Lamarck, Darwin, and evolu-
tionists in general have all along seen clearly that such prob-
lems can only be answered with the aid of experiment.

This word, "^experiment," is the master-word to the under-
standing of the present era in zoology, but with the oncome of
this era my sketch must come to an end. Wherever we look
today, whether to studies revolving round the idea of species,
or to those dealing with habit, or with anatomy, or with the tis-
sues, or with the cell, everywhere we find that along with obser-
vation and comparison, experiment has entered in. In some
fields the new method is easy to practise and is dominant, in
others it is difficult and therefore only accessory. With the
introduction of experiment it would seem that many questions
which have been raised should find an answer. Certainly the
outlook is hopeful.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

NOTE ON THE FUNDAMENTAL BASES OF
DYNAMICS.

By Wm. Cain.

For some years there has been increasing dissatisfaction with
the manner of presentation of the fundamental principles of
dynamics, as given by text books, particularly for the use of
engineering students. From the time of Newton down, mass
of a body has been defined as "the quantity of matter in the
body" — an admittedly ambiguous term.

Mass is likewise said to equal density times volume, or density
equals mass divided by volume, which gives no precise concep-
tion of density until the idea of mass is made clear and precise.

Next in order comes the definition, force = mass X accelera-
tion, which is likewise obscure until mass is quantitatively
defined.

However, as an illustration, if a body of mass m is supposed
to fall in vacuo under the force of the attraction of gravitation,
whose measure is the weight W in pounds (say), the accelera-
tion being g ft. per second per second, then the above equation
takes the well known form,

W = mg;
whence m = W/^

so that finally it is seen that mass is directly proportional to
weight and inversely proportional to the acceleration of gravity.
Also, since W. varies directly as g, the ratio W^g is constant for
the same body for all points on or in the earth, and it is now
realized clearly that mass is something pertaining to a body that
does not alter with its position.

Now it has always seemed to the writer that it would be more
logical to start with this precise conception of mass; in other
words, define m as W^g, so that there will be no ambiguity, from
the start, in ideas of mass, density and force. If this is done,
however, it is very important to explain how W is to be found ;
for the weight of a body, as estimated by an equal armed bal-
ance is not usually the same as that given by a spring balance,

1912^ Fundamental Bases of Dynamics 69

and it is well as a preliminary to the subject of dynamics to
precisely describe the two methods of weighing and under what
conditions they differ.

In what follows, the writer desires to acknowledge his indebt-
edness to an article by Prof. William Kent in " Science" for
May 5th, 1911, entitled, " N^otes on the Preliminary Report of
the Committee on the Teaching of Mathematics to Students of
Engineering." The present article might very well bear the
same title, for its inspiration has come through reading the
parts of the report given by Professor Kent and his valuable
criticism thereon. The great value of the Report and E^otes in
outlining a method of presenting the first principles of dynam-
ics, is acknowledged. But the writer believes the matter can be
cast into a simpler and more logical form and he will endeavor,
in what follows, to carry out this idea by suggesting such an out-
line of parts of the subject where amendment seems desirable.

(1) Mechanics treats of matter, at rest or in motion, under
the action of force.

(2) The phrase, "weight of a body," is unfortunately used
in two senses ( 1 ) to indicate the quantity of matter in the body,
(2) to mean the force of attraction of the earth at the place on
the body. To avoid confusion it is often advisable to specify the
meaning intended. Thus a piece of matter weighing a pound
may be called a pound of matter or a pound mass, whereas the
force of attraction of the earth on it will be called a pound force.
Similarly we can speak of a ton of matter and a ton force.

(3) The "British Unit" of weight is the quantity of matter
in a certain piece of platinum and is called a pound. The
"French Unit" is called the kilogram.

Copies of either standard, together with multiples and frac-
tional parts of the same, will be called "a set of standard
weights."

(4) To weigh a body on an equal armed balance, the body is
put in one scale pan and is balanced by a certain number of
standard weights (metal pieces) in the other scale pan. By this
method, it is seen that the body will "weigh" the same at any
latitude or altitude. Since the attraction of the earth on a

70 Journal of the Mitchell Society [August

body varies both with the latitude and altitude, it is evident
that the equal armed balance does not indicate, everywhere, the
attractive force of the earth on the body.

The same remark applies to any lever balance or platform
scales.

(5) Suppose a spring balance to be graduated with a set of
standard British weights at sea level at latitude 45° where
g = 32.174 ft. pr. sec. pr. sec. is the acceleration due to gravity.
'Now suppose a certain body there, when hung from the spring
balance, to depress the pointer until it reads W lbs., then the
attraction of the earth, at this point, for the body is exactly
W pounds force.

Similarly, if the body is hung from this same "standard"
spring balance at any other point on the earth, although the
pointer may not read the same as before, still it indicates ex-
actly the force with which the body is attracted by the earth at
the place. This is the true weight of, or the pull of the earth
on, the body and is the only one to be considered where great
scientific accuracy is required.

(6) Call the weight of the body at the second place Wj and
the acceleration due to gravity g^ ft. pr. sec. pr. sec. ; then since
it is an Experimental Fact that weight varies with acceleration,

Wi W

- = - (1)

9i 9
This simple equation gives the solution to a number of prob-
lems involving weights at different latitudes.

(7) Thus, if the standard spring balance has been graduated
at sea level at latitude 45° and a body weighs there W pounds,
it will weigh at the equator, at sea level, where g ■==-- 32.0894,

32.0894

Wi W== 0.99737 W (lbs.)

32.174

If W = 10000 lbs., Wi-= 9973.7 lbs., a difference of only 26.3
lbs. in 10000 ; so that for ordinary commercial or engineering
purposes the difference is negligible. It is to be noted that the

1912^ Fundamental Bases of Dynamics 71

body which weighs 10000 lbs. at 45° latitude, will weigh, on an
equal armed balance, 10000 lbs. anyivhere. Such a balance, or
any lever balance, will thus give approximate results, which are
usually near enough for commercial or most engineering pur-
poses.

(8) To find the difference in weights as measured on "the
standard spring balance" at any two points, let W^ and g^ repre-
sent the weight and gravity acceleration at one point, W2 and (/g
similar quantities for the other point ; then,

Wi Wo

- = - (2)

9i 92
Thus if a quantity of tea weighs W2= 1 lb. at the equator,
where g2= 32.09, it will weigh at London where g'i= 32.19

32.19

Wi= — (1) = 1.003 lb.

32.09

(9) Similarly, if any heavy body suspended from a wire,
stretches it an amount e at the equator, it will stretch it 1.003 e
at London.

(10) The steam pressure that will just lift a certain body at
London, will be 1.003 times the steam pressure, at the same
temperature, that will lift the same body at the equator. Other-
wise, by proportion, the same steam pressure will lift a body at
the equator weighing 1.003 times as much as at London, if the
weighing, in this instance, is done on an equal armed balance
or its equivalent at both places. In fact, adopting the notation
of (8), if the steam can just lift a body weighing W lbs. on the
spring balance at London, by assumption, it exerts the same
pressure,

gri 32.19

W^= — W2= W2= 1.003 W2

^2 32.09

at the equator.

Here W2 is the spring balance weight of the same body at
the equator. Hence a second body weighing 1.003 times the

72 Journal of the Mitchell Society [^August

first will just be lifted bj the same steam pressure at the equator.

(11) Another simple illustration will be given. The work
of raising a body of weight W lbs. at sea level, at latitude 45°,
h feet, is (W^) ft. lbs. At this place, call the acceleration due
to gravity g, at a second place g^ ; whence the attraction of the
earth on the same body at the second place is by ( 1 )

9i
Wi= — W

9

Hence the work of lifting it, at the second place, is, in ft. lbs.,

9i
W^h = —{Wh)

9

(12) MASS. Mass of a body means the quantity of matter
in the body, which is not supposed to alter in amount by chang-
ing the position of the body relative to the earth or to be affected
by the expansion or contraction of the body. Body here refers
to a limited portion of a gas or liquid or any solid body.

jN^ow by the experimental law, eq. (1) the ratio W/^ of the
weight of the body, as given by a spring balance, to the
acceleration due to gravity at any point within the sphere of
the earth's attraction, is constant. Hence mass, which is like-
wise unalterable by a change of place, is proportioned to W/g.
In the engineers' system it is usual to write for the mass irij
the equality,

W

m = — (3)

9

so that, in this system, W^g can be regarded as the measure of
the mass. For the same place, it varies directly with the
weight.

We have now a precise measure of mass and can appreciate
what properties of matter the word mass includes.

(13) The term "density" can now be defined as the quotient
of mass by volume.

1912^ Fundamental Bases of Dynamics 73

(14) The word "force" may be simply defined as a push or a
pull.

(15) From sq. (3), we have, W = rn^.
The fundamental formula of mechanics is,

Y = m a (4)

where F is the force acting on the body whose mass is m and
acceleration a, the force and acceleration being in the same di-
rection.

In the engineers' system of units, when gravity is the force,
acting (of course, vertically) F = W lbs., a = g, giving the
previous formula as a special case of (4).
(4) can likewise be written,

W
F = — a (5)

9
where F and W are expressed in pounds, a and g, in feet per sec-
ond per second.

(16) From (4) other well known formulas as, 'Ft = mv;
Y s=y2mv^, can at once be derived.

(17) Newton's three laws may be stated and commented on
at this stage. Formula (4) is the symbolical expression of one
law. Let us make an immediate application of the third law,
"to every action, there is always an equal and contrary reaction."

Thus let a perfectly smooth particle of mass m strike a sec-
ond similar particle of mass m, both moving in the same direc-
tion along the lines of the centers of the particles. In the infin-
itesimal time dt, call the accelerations of the particles a and a^
respectively, since they act in opposite directions, a and aj have
opposite signs. When by Newton's law of action and reaction

m Oj

— m a = 'm-i^a^', — =

mj a

In a recent work on Analytic Mechanics by Barton, p. 196, the
author follows Mach in giving the last equation as a definition
of mass. It is submitted that it is simpler to define mass as in
(12), then force as in (15), whence the above formula is seen
to be a derived one.

74 Journal of the Mitchell Society '[August

(18) In formula (5) above, W is supposed to be the weight
of the body in pounds as determined by a standard spring bal-
ance, used at the place of the body. By formula (1), W can be
taken as the weight by spring balance at 45° latitude, provided
g is put = 32.174. But W will be the same if the body is
weighed on an equal armed balance anywhere (4) ; hence, sup-
posing the body weighed in the usual way on a lever balance,
formula (5) can be written in the exact form,

W

F = a (6)

32.174

This is evidently the most practical form of equation (5).

(19) BEITISH ABSOLUTE SYSTEM. In the British
engineers' system, with which we have dealt so far, the pound
weight at sea level at latitude 45° has been taken as the unit of
force and the unit mass is derived from the equation

W

m = = 1 ;

32.174
whence the unit mass is the mass of a body weighing 32.174 lbs.
on a standard spring balance at sea level, at 45° latitude, or on
a lever balance any^vhere. In the British absolute system the
mass of the piece of metal, called a pound weight, is taken as the
unit of mass, and the unit of force is defined as that force which,
acting for one second on the mass of the pound piece of metal
generates in it a velocity of one foot per second.

From numerous experiments it is known that if a body weigh-
ing one pound, on a lever balance, fall freely for one second,
at sea level, at latitude 45°, it will acquire a velocity of
g = 32.174 feet per second. The force acting on the body is

1
1 pound. If this force was — of a pound, the body at the end

9
of one second, would have a velocity of one foot per second.

1
Hence the unit of force, at the place, is — of a pound (force)

9

1912^ Fundamental Bases of Dynamics 75

or slightly less than half an ounce avoirdupois. Such a force
has been called a poundal.

By equation (1) putting W = 1, gr = 32.174, we have
Wi 1

g^ 32.174

In this equation, W^ represents the attraction of the earth on
the metal piece, called a pound weight, at any place where the
acceleration is g^. Reasoning as before, the force W^ acting
freely on the metal piece will cause it to acquire in one second
a velocity of gi feet per second ; hence the force

Wi 1

— = pound = 0.031081 pound,

g^ 32.174

will produce in the body a velocity of one foot per second at the
place considered. The unit of force, the poundal, in the absolute
system, is thus constant and it may be thought of as a pull or a
push of a little less than i/o ounce. Let the student realize that
in the absolute system, in connection with the formula Y = m a,
that m is expressed by the same number that represents the
weight in pounds of the body as found (anywhere) by an equal-
armed balance, and that F is expressed in poundals, where a
poundal is 0.031081 pound force.

An answer in poundals can be readily expressed in pounds
of force by dividing by 32.174 or multiplying by 0.031081. In
Technical Mechanics, it is well to give the absolute system in
an Appendix, for although the engineer student will not use it
in his ordinary work, still a slight study of the absolute system
will enable one to read valuable works that otherwise might
offer difficulties.

The same remarks apply to the French C. G. S. system, which
may be analyzed as above. It is well to bear in mind that in any
absolute system, the lever balance always measures mass,
whereas in the engineers' system the spring balance measures
the attraction of the earth (weight).

Chapel Hill, N. C.

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MORE
COMMON BIVALVES OF BEAUFORT, N. C.

(Published by permission of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries)

By Henky D. Allek.

Director U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Laboratory, Beaufort, N. C.

While studying for systematic purposes the approximately
ninety species of bivalve molluscs which are found in the vicin-
ity of the Fisheries Laboratory at Beaufort, N. C, it seemed
desirable to consider which were available for scientific work
involving the use of living animals. A species represented at
the laboratory by a few specimens dredged in the deeper water
offshore, or by valves secured on the beaches, would be useless
for such research. Also species which might be abundant in
the vicinity but of which the habitat is not sufficiently well
known to permit of their being collected when wanted would be
equally useless. It is the purpose of this paper to indicate
which species are available in a living condition, specific local-
ities where they may be found, and when possible something
in reference to their abundance. A paper of this kind cannot
be complete, for further work will necessarily extend such infor-
mation. It can only include what is known at the time by the
writer. It is hoped that it may be of service to prospective
investigators by pointing out what material they would have
at their service under ordinary conditions.

For the identification of the species and for assistance with
the literature I am very largely indebted to Doctors Dall and
Bartsch of the U. S. National Museum.

FAMILY SOLENOMYACID^.

Genus Solemya Lamarck, 1818.

Solemya velum Say.

Solemya velum Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 317, 1822.
Solenomya velum, Dall, Bull. 37» U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 46, fig. 3, 1889.

Abundant on the sandy shoals west of the laboratory. Early
records indicate that it is found on Bird Shoal. It has been

76

19121 Distribution of Bivalves of Beaufoet^ N. C. 77

found recently near Gallants Point across the channel leading
from the inland waterway to Beaufort, and it probably occurs
on sandy shoals throughout the vicinity. It is easily obtained
at low water, living in sand near the surface. Collected on
Shark Shoal, 1912.

FAMILY NUCULIDiE.
Genus Nucula Lamarck, 1799.

Nucula proxima Say.

Nucula proxima Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 270, 1822 ;
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 42, pi. 56, fig. 4, 1889; Ball, Trans.
Wagner Inst- Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 574, 1898.

Little attention has been given to the collection of living speci-
mens. Live animals have been dredged, during 1912, near the
eastern end of Bogue Sound, and dead valves are found in other
localities. It is believed that careful search would yield abund-
ant material.

FAMILY ARCID^.

Genus Area (Linnaeus) Lamarck, 1799.
Subgenus Noetia Gray, 1840.

Area (Noetia) ponderosa Say.

Area ponderosa Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 267, 1822.

Area (Noetia) ponderosa, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 40, 1889;
Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 633, 1898.

Of the several species of this genus which belong to the Beau-
fort fauna this is the most abundant. It is a large form and may
be readily obtained at any time. It lives a few inches below the
surface of the ground, in firm sand or mud. One specific col-
lecting ground is the shoals west of the laboratory.

Subgenus Scapharca (Gray) DalL

Area (Scapharca) transversa Say.

Area transversa Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 269, 1822;
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat- Mus., p. 40, pi. 56, fig. 2, 1889.

Scapharca (Scapharca) transversa, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci.,
Tol. 3, pt. 4, p. 645, 1898.

Y8 Journal of the Mitchell Society [August

Several specimens in the laboratory collection are recorded
as having been collected above Horse Island on mud bottom.
The animal, immature, is recorded from Pivers Island and
from Bogue Sound. A few other specimens have been taken in
the dredge in the vicinity of Beaufort. Valves are found rather
commonly.

Area (Scapharca) campechensis Dillwyn.

Area campechensis Dillwyn, Descr. Cat. Rec. Sh-, I., p. 288, 1817 (Syn.
partim exclus.), Jamaica and Carolina.

Area pexata Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 268, 1822;
Dall, Bull. 37, U- S. Nat. Mus., p. 40, 1889.

Scapharca (Argina) campechensis, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci.,
vol. 3, pt, 4, p. 650, 1898.

Small examples have been dredged in Bogue Sound; one
specimen in channel south of Green Rock. As many valves are
in the laboratory collection, further search will probably reveal
good collecting grounds.

FAMILY PINNID^.
Genus Atrina Gray.

Atrina rigida (Dillwyn).

Pinna rigida (Solander MSB.) Dillwyn, Cat, p. 327, 1817.
Atrina rigida, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 663, 1898;
Grave, B. H-, Bull. Bur. Fish., vol. 29, p. 411, 191 1.

The species is fairly abundant. The usual collecting ground
is in the vicinity of Pivers Island. The form may be found at
about low water mark. The valves usually project a short dis-
tance above the surface of the ground.

The anatomy and physiology of this species have been made
the subject of a report by Grave, loc. cit.

FAMILY PTERIIDiE.

Genus Pteria Scopoli, 1777.

Pteria colymbus (Bolten).

Pinctada colymbus Bolten, Mus. Boltenian., p. 167, 1798.

Avicula atlantica, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 36, 1889.

Pteria colymbus, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 670, 1898.

1912^ Distribution of Bivalves of Beaufort, K. C. 79

Living animals are occasionally found. Systematic search
would probably reveal a moderate number. It is found attached
to suitable objects in the water.

FAMILY OSTREID^.

Genus Ostrea (Linnaeus) Lamarck.

Ostrea virginica Gmelin.

Ostrea virginica Gmelin, Syst. Nat., p. 3336, 1792; Dall, Trans. Wagner
Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt, 4, p. 687, 1898.

This abundant species needs only inclusion in this list.

FAMILY PECTINIDiS:
Genus Pecten Miiller.

Pecten (Plagioctenium) gibbus (Linnaeus).

Ostrea gibba Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, No. 172, p. 698, 1758.
Pecten dislocatus Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 260, 1822.
Pecten (Plagioctenium) gibbus, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3,
pt. 4, p. 745, 1898.

This species is found in sufficient quantities to form a local
food supply of considerable value. The adult form is free-
swimming and may be found at various times in different local-
ities. Some observations on the habits of the varietal form
Pecten dislocatus Say have been published by Grave, B. H.,
Biol. Bull., vol. 16, No. 5, April, 1909.

FAMILY ANOMIIDiE.

Genus Anomia (Linnaeus) Miiller.

Anomia simplex Orbigny.

Anomia simplex Orbigny, Moll. Cubana, vol. 2, p. 367, pi. 38, figs. 31-33,
(1845 Spanish edition), 1853; Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 32, pi. 53,
figs. 1-2, 1889; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 784, 1898.

The animal is common in the vicinity. One collecting
ground is the shoals west of the laboratory. It is found attached
to other shells, as Ostrea, Tagelus, Macrocallista.

80 JOUBNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY \_AugUSf

FAMILY MYTILIDiE.
Genus Mytilus (Linnaeus) Bolten.

Mytilus (Hormomya) exustus Linnaeus.

Mytilus exustus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., Ed. lo, p. 705, 1758; Dall, Bull.
37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 38, 1889.

Mytilus (Hormomya) exustus, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3,
pt. 4, P- 788, 1898.

This comparatively small species is found in fairly large
numbers on the breakwater at Pivers Island, associated with
Modiolus demissus (Dillwyn). It can probably be found on
any of the several breakwaters in the vicinity of Beaufort.

Genus Modiolus Lamarck, 1799.

Modiolus (Brachydontes) demissus (Dillwyn).

Mytilus demissus (Solander MSS.) Dillwyn, Descr. Cat. Rec. Shells,
vol. I, p. 314, 1817.

Modiola plicatula, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 38, pi. 54, fig. i,
1889.

Modiolus (Brachydontes) demissus, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci.,
vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 794, 1898.

Very abundant on the breakwater and on muddy ground be-
tween tide marks at Pivers Island. Abundant about the west-
ern end of Town Marsh. Its natural habitat at Beaufort seems
to be between tide marks among the roots of vegetation along
the edges of salt marshes. It is the common mussel at Beaufort.

Modiolus tulipus Lamarck^

Modiola tulipa Lamarck, An. sans Vert., vol. 6, p. iii, 1819; Dall,
Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 38, 1889.

Modiolus tulipus, Dall & Simpson, Bull. U. S. Fish Com. for 1900,
vol. 20, pt. I, p. 470.

The species has been found at the railroad pier at Morehead
City and in the vicinity of Pivers Island. So far living ma-
trial has not been found abundantly.

Genus Lithophaga Bolten, 1798.

Lithophaga bisulcata (Orbigny).

Lithodomus bisulcatus Orbigny, Moll. Cubana, vol. 2, p. 333, pi. 28,
figs. 14-16, 1847 (Spanish edition and atlas, 1845).

Lithophagus bisulcatus, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 38, 1889.

Lithophaga (Diberus) bisulcata, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3,
pt. 4, p. 801, 1898.

1912'] Distribution of Bivalves of Bkaufokt, N. C. 81

Living animals are abundant near the iN^orfolk Southern rail-
road pier at Morehead City. Their occurrence is not known
elsewhere about Beaufort Harbor. The species is found bur-
rowing into pieces of coral and soft rock. The scarcity of suit-
able material into which the individuals may burrow accounts
for the limited distribution about Beaufort. The maximum
length noted is 46 mm.

FAMILY TEREDINID^.
Genus Xylotrya Leach.

Xylotrya gouldi Bartsch.

Xylotrya gouldi Bartsch, Proc. Biol- Soc. Wash., vol. 21, p. 211, 1908;
Sigerfoos, Bull. Bur. Fish., vol. 27, p. 194, 1908.

This species is found abundantly in wood such as piling, ex-
posed to the action of sea water.

FAMILY PHOLADID^.
Genus Martesia Leach, 1825.

Martesia (Section Diplothyra) smithii (Tryon).

Diplothyra smithii Tryon, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 14, p. 201,
1862.

Martesia (Section Diplothyra) smithii, Dall, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
p. 72,

A small mollusc, which has been found abundantly at the rail-
road pier at Morehead City.

FAMILY MACTRID^.
Genus Spisula Gray, 1838.

Spisula similis (Say).

Mactra similis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 309, 1822.
Mactra solidissima van similis, Dall, Bull, Z7, U. S. Nat. Mus-, p. 62,
3889.

The living animal is taken in the dredge, but specific local-
ities are not recorded. It has been found, 1912, on the sea-
tshore near Fort Macon.

82 JOUKNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY \^AugUSt

Genus Mulinia Gray.

Mulinia lateralis (Say).

Mactra lateralis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 309, 1822;
Dall, Bull. 37, U- S. Nat. Mus., p. 62, pi. 69, fig. 8, 1889.

Mulinia lateralis, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 901,
1898.

The species is found at Pi vers Island and on a shoal west of
that island. Fairly abundant.

FAMILY SOLENID^.
Genus Solen (Linnaeus) Scopoli, 1777.

Solen viridis Say.

Solen viridis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 316, 1822.
Solen (Ensis) viridis, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 72, 1889.
Solen viridis, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 952, 1900.

A fe^ animals have been collected at Beaufort. One specific
collecting ground is the shoals west of the laboratory.

FAMILY DONACIDJE.
Genus Donax (Linnaeus).

Donax variabilis Say.

Donax variabilis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 305, 1822;
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 58, 1889; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst.
Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 969, 1900.

The specific collecting ground is the seashore at Fort Macon.
At times small areas near the water's edge may be found where
the animals occur in large numbers.

FAMILY PSAMMOBIID^.
Genus Tagelus Gray.

Tagelus gibbus (Spengler).

Solen gibbus Spengler, Skrivt. Nat. Selsk., vol- 3, p. 104, 1794.
Tagelus gibbus, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 58, pi. 55, fig. 3, pL
56, fig. 3, 1889 ; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 983, 1900.

Collecting grounds: In muddy sand just south of railroad
pier at Morehead City, Fivers Island, shoals west of Fivers
Island. The animal may be found buried at a depth of a foot
or more in the ground between tide marks. Shells are common
on Shark Shoal.

1912^ Distribution of Bivalves of Beaufort^ N. C. 83

Tagelus divisus (Spengler).

Solen divisus Spengler, Skrivt. Nat. Selsk., vol. 3, p. 96, 1794.
Tagelus divisus, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 58, pi. 56, fig 5, 1889;
Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 984, 1900-

Collecting grounds: Dredging in Bogue Sound, vicinity of
Fivers Island, near Gallants Point across the channel leading
from inland waterway to Beaufort, south of railroad pier at
Morehead City, muddy sand about western end of Town Marsh.
Abundant.

FAMILY SEMELID^.
Genus Semele Schumacher.

Semele proficua (Pulteney).

Tellina proficua Pulteney, Hutchin's Dorset, p. 29, pi. 5, fig. 4, 1799.
Semele proficua, Dall & Simpson, Bull. U. S. Fish Com. for 1900, vol.
20, pt, I, p. 477; Dall, Trans, Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 991, 1900.

The species is common on Fivers Island, and it is also ob-
tained by dredging in Bogue Sound.

Genus Abra (Leach) Lamarck, 1818.

Abi-a sequalis (Say).

Amphidesma sequalis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 307,
1822.

Abra sequalis, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p, 62, 1889; Dall, Trans.
Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt, 5, p, 998, 1900.

It may be obtained by dredging in Bogue Sound. Live ma-
terial is not recorded as common. Valves of the species appear
to be abundant throughout the vicinity of the laboratory.

FAMILY TELLINID^.
Genus Tellina (Linnaeus) Lamarck, 1799.

Tellina alternata Say.

Tellina alternata Say, Journ, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 275, 1822 ;
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 60, 1889.

Tellina (EuryteUina) alternata, Dall, Trans Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3,
pt. 5, p. 1029, 1900.

The live animal is found in Beaufort Harbor but specific lo-
calities are not recorded.

84 Journal of the Mitchell Society l_August

Genus Macoma Leach, 1819.

Macoma tenta (Say).

? Psammobia lusoria Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 304,
1822; not of Conrad, 1840.

Tellina tenta Say, Am. Conch., pi. 65, fig. 3, 1834.

Macoma tenta, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 60, pi. 56, fig. 10, 1889;
Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1049, IQOO-

Collecting ground : Dredging in Bogue Sound. Material not
known to be abundant.

FAMILY PETRICOLID^.
Genus Petricola Lamarck, 1801.

Petricola (Rupellaria) typica (Jonas).

Choristodon typicum Jonas, Zeitschr. Mai., i., p. 185 ; Beitr. MoUuskol.,
p. I, pi. 7, fig- 3, 1844-

Petricola (Choristodon) robusta, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 58,
1889; not of Sowerby.

Petricola (Rupellaria) typica, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3,
pt. 5, P- 1059, 1900.

Collecting ground at railroad pier, Morehead City.

Petricola (Petricolaria) pholadiformis Lamarck.

Petricola pholadiformis Lamarck, An. sans Vert., v., p. 505, 1818;
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 58, pi. 59, fig. 15, pi 64, fig. 140a, 1889.

Petricola (Petricolaria) pholadiformis, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci.,
vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1061, 1900.

The animal is found in the mud (or turf) in the vicinity of
the jetties at Fort Macon; also about the western end of Town
Marsh. It lives near the surface between tide marks. It is also
found in rocks at the railroad pier at Morehead City.

Petricola dactylus Sowerby.

Petricola dactylus Sowerby, Genera, Petricola, fig. 3, 1823.
Petricola pholadiformis var. dactylus, Dall, Bull- 37, U. S. Nat. Mus.,
p. 58, 1889.

Specimens are found at the railroad pier at Morehead City.
The species is probably more widely distributed in the vicinity.

1912^ Distribution of Bivalves of Beaufort, N. C. 85

FAMILY VENERID^.
Genus Dosinia Scopoli, 1777.

Dosinia discus (Reeve).

Artemis discus Reeve, Conch. Icon., vol. 6, Artemis, pi. 2, fig. 9, 1850.

Dosinia (Dosinidia) discus, Dall, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus-, No. 1312,
P- 379. pl- 12, rig. I, pi. 13, fig. I, 1902; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol.
3, pt. 6, p. 1232, 1903.

Material very abundant in the sand flats about Fivers Island.
It is found buried in sand nearly a foot below the surface, near
the low water mark. It could probably be found on sandy shoals
generally in the vicinity.

Genus Macrocallista Meek, 1876.

Macrocallista nimbosa (Solander).

Venus nimbosa Solander, Portland Cat., p. 175, No. 3761, 1786.

Cytherea (Callista) gigantea, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 56,
1889.

Macrocallista nimbosa, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci-, vol. 3, pt. 6,
p. 1254, 1903.

One specific collecting ground is the shoals west of Fivers
Island. It is also found on Shark Shoal. Charles Hatsel states
that it is common on Bird Shoal and that it lives three or four
inches below the surface in sand between tide marks.

Genus Chione Megerle von Muhlfeld, 1811.

Chione cancellata (Linnaeus).

Venus cancellata Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 12, p. 1130, 1767; Dall,
Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus-, p. 54, 1889.

Chione cancellata, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 6, p. 1290,
1903.

Specific collecting grounds are about the laboratory pier at
Fivers Island and on the old oyster reef across the channel from
the east side of Fivers Island. It is a very abundant species,
living on muddy or shelly bottom, near or on the surface, at
about low water mark.

Genus Venus (Linnaeus) Lamarck.

Venus mercenaria (Linnaeus).

< Venus mercenaria Linnaeus, Syst. Nat-, Ed. 10, p. 686, 1758.
Venus mercenaria, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 54, pi. 55, fig. 7,

86 Journal of the Mitchell Society \_August

pi. 71, figs. I, 3, 1889; Dall, Trans- Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 6, p. 131 1,
1903.

The species may be easily obtained at or near the surface on
muddy or shelly bottom between tide marks almost anywhere in
the vicinity. Very abundant.

FAMILY CARDIID^.
Genus Cardium (Linnseus) Lamarck.

Subgenus Trachycardium M5rch, 1853.

Cardium (Trachycardium) isocardia Linnaeus.

< Cardium isocardia Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, p. 679, 1758; Dall,
Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 52, 1889.

Cardium (Trachycardium) isocardia, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci.,
vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1085, 1900.

The living animal has been dredged, during 1912, near the
eastern end of Bogue Sound.

Cardium (Trachycardium) muricatum Linnseus.

Cardium muricatum Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, p. 680, 1758; Dall,
Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 52, 1889.

Cardium (Trachycardium) muricatum, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci.,
vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1089, 1900.

The species has been collected in the vicinity of Pivers
Island, at the railroad pier at Morehead City, and dredged near
the eastern end of Bogue Sound.

Subgenus Dinocardium Dall, 1900.

Cardium (Dinocardium) robustum Solander.

Cardium robustum Solander, Portland Catalogue, p. 58, 1786, after
Lister, Hist. Conch., pi. 328, fig. 165, 1770.

Cardium magnum, Dall, Bull 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p- 52, 1889.

Cardium (Cerastoderma) robustum, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci.,
vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1099, 1900.

Living animals have been found on Bird Shoal in Beaufort
Harbor. The valves of this species are the most conspicuous
ones on the seashore at Fort Macon.

Subgenus Laevicardium Swainson, 1840.

Cardium (Laevicardium) mortoni Conrad.

Cardium mortoni Conrad, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, p. 259,
pi. 10, figs. 5, 6, 7, 1830.

1912'] Distribution of Bivalves of Beaufokt^ N. C. 87

Cardium (Liocardium) mortoni, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 54,
pi. 58, fig. 8, 1889.

Cardium (Laevicardium) mortoni, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci.,
vol. 3, pt. 5, p. nil, 1900.

The live animal may be obtained on Fivers Island, on the
shoals west of that island, and in the dredge in the vicinity of
Beaufort.

Family Lucinidse.

Genus Phacoides Blainville, 1825.

Phacoides (Parvilucina) crenella Dall.

Phacoides (Parvilucina) crenella, Dall, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., No.
1237, Synopsis Lucinacea, pp. 810, 825, pi. 39, fig. 2, 1901.

Lucina crenulata, Dall, Bull. 37, U- S. Nat. Mus., p. 50, 1889.

Living material could probably be found abundantly, but the
laboratory records are not sufficient to verify the assumption.
A rather small species.

Genus Divaricella von Martens.

Divaricella quadrisulcata (Orbigny).

Lucina quadrisulcata Orbigny, Voy. Am. Men, Moll., p. 584, 1846.

Lucina (Divaricella) quadrisulcata, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p.
50, 1889.

Divaricella quadrisulcata, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt- 6,
p. 1389, pi. 51, fig- I, 1903.

Valves are abundant and some entire animals have been col-
lected at Beaufort. This species should not be confused with
D. dentata Wood, which the writer has not found at Beaufort.

April, 1912.

THE GLOOMY SCALE, AN IMPORTANT ENEMY OF
SHADE TREES IN NORTH CAROLINA.

By Z. p. Metcalf.

The gloomy scale is the most important insect enemy of shade
trees in North Carolina. We are led to make this statement for
two reasons : First, because it increases far more rapidly than
any other insect attacking shade trees, and in the second place
it is all but confined to the maples which have been so largely
used for shade purposes along the streets of our cities and towns.
The gloomy scale is rather closely related to the famous San
Jose scale, which is so destructive to our fruit trees. Unlike
the San Jose scale it is a native insect. We are led to believe
this because the gloomy scale is very heavily parasitized, indi-
cating that it has been established in this country for a long
period of time. Then the fact that the scale has been found on
a willow along a stream in Lincoln County is another very strong
indication of its nativity.

The gloomy scale differs from the San Jose scale in another
very vital respect, and that is that it is very much more difficult
to control. We believe that this is due to the fact that the
gloomy scale lives over the winter as a mature insect, while the
San Jose scale lives over the winter as a half grown young. The
latter condition enables us to apply very caustic insecticides at
a time when the insect is weakest, and at the same time the tree
is in a dormant condition so that it is not injured in the least.
Then, too, the dorsal scale of the gloomy scale is much thicker
and more closely applied to the ventral scale than is the case
with the San Jose scale, so that the gloomy scale is especially
well protected against any contact insecticide.

These facts forced themselves upon our attention soon after
we commenced experiments for the control of this insect four
years ago. We soon discovered that the remedies usually recom-
mended for the San Jose scale would be of little or no use
against this insect. As a matter of fact the mortality of the
scale on some unsprayed trees was less than that of some trees

88

1912'] The Gloomy Scale 89

sprayed with the ordinary lime-sulphur, due perhaps to the
fungicidal action of the lime-sulphur killing out the winter form
of the red headed fungus, a rather common fungus disease of
this insect.

The following winter we tried an extensive series of experi-
ments with all of the manufactured insecticides at our com-
mand. These insecticides may be divided roughly into two
classes, — the lime-sulphurs and the soluable oils. The lime-
sulphurs are highly concentrated mixtures of various compounds
of lime and sulphur, which are diluted with water to make
mixtures of various strengths for different plants and for differ-
ent seasons of the year. The soluable oils are essentially the
heavier oils of the petroleum series together with a vegetable
oil. When mixed with water they make a beautiful emulsion
that may be used for spraying with perfect safety. The very
day that the mixtures were applied it was evident that the
lime-sulphurs would not be as effective as the soluable oils. The
former dried on the bark in a very short time, while the latter
remained moist for several hours. Thus the soluable oils were
enabled to creep in around and under the thick closely-applied
dorsal scale and suffocate the insect. While the lime-sulphurs
were not able to penetrate the thick dorsal scale, and they dried
so quickly that they could not creep under, so that they killed
very few insects.

Examinations of the sprayed trees every three or four months
until last fall showed that all of the soluable oils had been
effective, killing at least 95 per cent, of the scale, while none of
the lime-sulphurs had killed over 75 per cent. This represents
the difference between an effective and a non-effective spray
mixture.

Another point that has been brought out in the course of our
investigations is the fact that the soft maples, red and silver,
are injured more by this insect than the hard maples like the
sugar and Norway. Careful inspection usually shows as high
as 90 per cent of the soft maples infested, whereas it is very
unusual to find as high as one per cent, of the hard maples in-
fested. In this connection the following host plant list shows

90 Journal of the Mitchell Society {^August

what trees we may reasonably expect to suffer from the attacks
of this insect, although it is probable that not all of the trees
given will be seriously troubled.

Apple, (Pyrus mains L.) Several young trees growing under
the overhanging branches of badly infested red maples found
slightly infested.

Bed Maple. (Acer rubrum L.) Generally infested.

Silver Maple. (Acer saccharinum L.) Uniformly and badly
infested.

Sugar Maple. (Acer saccharum Marsh.) A few scattering
individuals found infested, mostly very slightly.

Box Elder. (Acer negundo L.) A few infested.

Buckeye.. (iEsculus glabra Willd.) Slightly infested.

Japanese Chestnut. (Castanea sativa.) Badly infested .

Sycamore. (Platanus occidentalis L.) Slightly infested.

Water Oak. (Quercus nigra L.) A single tree slightly in-
fested.

White Oak. (Quercus alba L.) A few trees slightly infested.

Iron-wood. (Carpinus caroliniana Walt.) A single badly
infested tree.

Willow. (Salix sp.) A small badly infested tree found
along a stream in Lincoln County.

Cottonwood. (Populus deltoidea Marsh.) Slightly infested
tree.

American Elm. (TJlmus americana L.) Slightly infested.

Mulberry. . (Morus rubra L.) Badly infested.

The complete life history of this insect is yet to be worked
out, and it is our intention to work this out this summer. We
have determined, however, that the females give birth to living
young, the first young from overwintering adults being born
about the 10th of May. These young molt twice and reach ma-
turity in summer and then give birth to living young. The
exact number of generations each year is not known. Neither
is the male insect known save for a brief description of two
"male" dorsal scales given by Comstock in the original descrip-
tion of this insect. Comstock states that the insects beneath
these scales were dead and much shrivelled. Strange to say,

1912} The Gloomy Scale 91

we have never discovered any males, although we have inspected
hundreds of trees, most of which were very badly infested, and
certainly if males occurred in anyways normal proportions we
would have discovered them. At other times we have examined
and counted hundreds of scales on selected twigs, and found them
all females. Of course parthenogenesis is a possibility, but it
does not occur normally in nearly related species ; and that
leads us to believe that it does not occur here. Although we
are almost forced to believe that fertilization, if it occurs at all,
occurs in only one generation out of the several generations
each year.

CAPTUEE OF RALEIGH BY THE WHARF RAT.
By C. S. Brimley.

Three species of rats are commonly known as house rats;
these are the Black Rat (Mus rattus), the Brown Rat or Wharf
Rat (Mus norvegicus), and the Roof Rat (Mus alexandrinus).
Of these, the black rat, formerly the common house rat of
Europe, was introduced by the earliest settlers into North
America, and in both countries has been practically extermi-
nated by the wharf rat, a late comer. The roof rat, an inhab-
itant of the Mediterranean regions, has been introduced into the
Southern States, as well as into most warm countries, and ap-
pears to hold its own against the wharf rat better than the
black rat, which it resembles in all but color. In the tropics,
however, all three species exist side by side.

In characteristics the three differ as follows: the black rat
is sooty black above, somewhat lighter below, and the tail is
usually longer than the head and body ; the roof rat is brownish
gray above, yellowish white below, and has the tail also longer
than the head and body; the wharf rat is browner than the
roof rat above, and much less white below, (the white being more
ashy), while the tail is usually decidedly shorter than the head
and body. It is also a considerably heavier animal than the two
others. An extra large roof rat will measure 17 inches in total
length, of which about 9% inches would be tail, while an aver-
age wharf rat of the same total length would have the tail only
about 7 inches, or less.

Up to 1909 the only house rats I had seen in Raleigh were
the roof rats, but in that year a wharf rat was brought up to
the State Museum some time late in March, the first I had
seen since I left England in 1880. During the next year I
occasionally saw a dead one that had been thrown on the street,
but during 1911 they leaped into prominence. In that year the
old cotton platform near the Seaboard freight depot was torn
up, and it was the general opinion that multitudes of rats that
had been dwelling beneath were then scattered abroad. At any

92

1912'] Capture of Raleigh by the Whaef Eat 93

rate, complaints began to come in to the newspapers about a
strange kind of rat that was overrunning Raleigh, and slaugh-
tering young chickens ad libitum, and most wonderful stories
became current about them. They were as big as cats; large
ones weighed three pounds ; whenever a hen and chickens were
placed in a rat-proof coop resting on the ground, the rats care-
fully surveyed the coop, and then dug tunnels underneath it,
always coming up exactly underneath the old hen, and killing
all her chickens without ever showing themselves. Wild as these
stories were, they had a foundation in fact, this species being
a most inveterate destroyer of small chickens. One of the
neighbors, for instance, only a few days ago left a chicken coop
open one night and the rats got no less than twenty-six of the
thirty chickens in the coop.

They reached my vicinity, a mile from the Seaboard depot,
last August, and I have been catching specimens off and on ever
since. So far I have not lost any chickens by them, but there
is no doubt they are a most serious factor in chicken raising in
Raleigh at present.

In habits they are strongly inclined to burrow, while the other
two species are climbers, a roof rat when disturbed preferring
to seek safety upwards, a wharf rat downwards. The largest
specimen I have weighed did not exceed a pound, and several
other big ones only reached 14 ounces.

Why they have not overrun Raleigh before it is hard to say,
as they are known to have been at Beaufort as far off as 1870
(Coues), and at Newbern in 1885 (H. H. Brimley), while they
have been doubtless plentiful at Norfolk and Baltimore ever
since Raleigh has been in existence, and specimens have almost
certainly been brought in on freight cars every year. We hear
that they overran Kinston in a similar manner some years ago.

So far as my premises were concerned, the roof rats had ap-
parently left before the wharf rats came in. It is known how-
ever that the roof rat interbreeds with the black rat, and it is
claimed that it also does with the wharf rat. However that may
be, I have caught several specimens since last fall that were ap-

94 JOUENAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY \_AugUSt

parently wharf rats, but had tails longer than the head and body
as in the roof rat.

Whether the wharf rat will continue to be the house rat of
Raleigh in future, or whether local conditions which must cer-
tainly have been favorable to the roof rat in the past, will ena-
ble the latter species to regain its hold on the town again and
drive the wharf rat out, I do not know, but my hopes are for the
roof rats' success and my expectations are against it.

Raleigh, N. C.

VIABLE BERMUDA GRASS SEED PRODUCED m
THE LOCALITY OF RALEIGH, N. C.

By O. I. Tillman.

Cynodon Dadylon (L.) Pers. (Capriola Ktze.) Bermuda
grass, also known as Wire grass, Bahama grass, Indian couch
grass, Scotch grass, and Dog's-tooth grass, is of great economic
value throughout the Southern states and is also a noxious pest
in certain instances as the very qualities which make it valuable
also render it objectionable. It is supposed that this grass will
not develop germinable seed in the United States except in the
arid Southwest, but it was found that in the vicinity of Raleigh,
N. C, this grass produced such seed.

September 8, 1910, flowering stalks were gathered from a
grass plot along the city streets. The glumes were stript from
these and it was found that 76 per cent, were empty and that
there were 24 per cent of pure seed which germinated 82 per
cent. Another sample was collected October 11, 1910, along
the roadside, a few miles from Raleigh, which was found to
produce 4 per cent pure seed, which germinated 60 per cent.
The seeds of both samples were kept until June of the following
spring before being tested. The tests were made in a standard
germinating chamber at an alternating temperature of 20-35
degrees C. The seeds were placed on top of moist blotting pa-
per. The sprouts were strong and some were grown in the lab-
oratory into good-sized plantlets.

Two samples of Bermuda grass seed from the trade, retailing
at $1.25 per pound, were tested under the same conditions as
the locally grown seed and germinated 27 per cent, and 17 per
cent, respectively. This is a striking comparison of the superior
germinating value of the locally produced seed and that of the
trade, at least in this instance.

Since it has been found that Bermuda grass produces seed of
so high a germination in a locality where it was not supposed
to produce seed, it might be well if this fact were given consid-
eration both in the cultivation and eradication of the grass.

State Department of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.

95

VOL. XXVIII DECEMBER, 1912 No. 3

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C, U. S. A.

TO QE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER

'<C.

..-..., ■• , .■ ^^•.■' V ., , ■V„j-. ■ , .,.;,^ ; ■_,,. 'V . . ■'t...^j-^. V , ;rv , .J^,/^ .:;.';•-..,-, Pill-'. ;^ . is! .'V^'T.^rVtt^

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

WILLIAM deB. MacNIDER, President
ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, Vice-President
R. A. HALL, Recording Sec F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec

Editors of the Journal :

W. C. COKER

J. M. BELL, - A. H. PATTERSON

CONTENTS

Mat.aeial Pigment (Hematin) as a Factor in the
Peoduction of the Malarial Paeozysm —
Wade H. Brown, M.D . 97

The Past^ Pkesent, and Future of the Naval

Stokes Industry — Chas. B. Herty 117

The Eesenes of Resins and Oleoeesins — Chas. H.

Herty and W. S. DicJcson. . 131

The Value of Commercial Starches for Cotton

Mill Purposes — G. M, MacNider 135

Xote on the~ Transformation of Ammonium

Cyanate into Urea 146

Xew Thermometers for Melting Point Determi-

tion 148

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society— Quarterly. Price
$2,00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Dir/ct all correspondence to the Editors, at
University of NfciTth Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XXVIII DECEMBER, 1912 No. 3

MALARIAL PIGMENT (HEMATIN) AS A FACTOR

I]Sr THE PRODUCTION OF THE MALARIAL

PAROXYSM.*

By Wade H. Brown, M. D.

It is remarkable that, from the enormous amount of inves-
tigation that has centered about the malarial parasite and its
relation to malarial fevers, there has come no clear exposition
of the mode of production of the various phenomena of the
malarial paroxysm. It is true that these phenomena have been
ascribed to the presence in the circulation of some toxic sub-
stance, or substances, elaborated by the malarial parasite, and
that the blood at the time of the segmentation of the parasite
has been shown to possess toxic properties. Still, as far as I
know, the nature of these toxic agents remains unknown, as
no one has clearly demonstrated the presence of any definite
substance, which, when introduced into the circulation, could
reproduce the symptom complex of the malarial paroxysm.
The observations embodied in this report are offered, therefore,
with the hope of shedding some light upon the question.

In the course of some work on hematin metabolism, it was
noted that a rabbit that had received an intravenous injection
of alkaline hematin developed a very pronounced shaking chill,
strikingly like that of malaria. As the author has attempted
to show in a previous paper, ^ the pigment elaborated from the
hemoglobin of the red blood corpuscle by the malarial parasite

Reprinted from the Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol. XV, No. 6, 1912.

* Aided by a grant from Ttie Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Re-
ceived for publication, March 29, 1912.

The first seven experiments of this investigation were done in the Pathological
Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

1 W. H. Brown, Jour. Exper. Med., 1911, xiil, 290.

98 Journal of the Mitchell Society [^Decemher

and liberated into the circulation of the host at the time of
segmentation of the parasite is undoubtedly hematin. It at
once appeared possible, therefore, that we might find in this
substance one of the hypothetical toxins operative in malaria.
The investigation of this question now embraces a series of
ninety observations upon the effect of the intravenous injection
of alkaline hematin, eighteen rabbits having been used for
test purposes.

technique.

Materials Used and Their Preparation. — The hematin used
was derived from three sources, rabbit blood, dog blood, and
ox blood, but in all cases it was prepared by the Schalfijew
process. The solutions for injection were made in 0.85 per
cent, salt solution containing 1.5 or 2 per cent, bicarbonate
of sodium. The strength of the hematin employed has varied
from 1.5 to 5 milligrams per cubic centimeter. The hematin
was added to the sterile solvent and heated to 100° C. for five
to ten minutes, and was then allowed to stand for twelve to
twenty-four hours, when it was again heated and, while still
hot, filtered into sterile flasks. The subsequent treatment of
these solutions has varied somewhat. Solutions prepared thus,
and again heated to 100° C. for five to ten minutes have appa-
rently remained sterile. In a few instances, however, the
filtered solution has been autoclaved to insure sterility.

It has been found extremely difficult to prepare hematin
solutions of absolutely uniform character. With a given prep-
aration of hematin and with the same technique in the prepara-
tion of the solutions, two distinct types of solution may be
obtained : one, a perfectly clear, deeply colored solution that
even under the microscope shows very few particles of pigment
suspension, and on standing shows no precipitation in the
flask ; the other, a turbid solution that appears chocolate brown
in thin layers and under the microscope shows myriads of
pigmented particles and droplets floating in an only faintly
colored fluid. Much of -this pigment is precipitated on allow-
ing the solution to stand. This latter " colloidal " type of
solution or suspension, manifests all the optical properties of

1912'] Malarial Pigment in Malarial Paroxysm 99

an alkaline hematin solution and the suspended pigment readily
passes through Schleicher and Schiill filter paper No. 597
which has been used as the routine filter. With different prep-
arations of hematin these variations in solubility are contin-
ually appearing. Reference is made to this feature of the
hematin solution to indicate the difficulty in maintaining abso-
lutely uniform experimental conditions and accurate dosage.

Experimental Procedure. — Briefly, the experiments have
been conducted according to the following plan: The animals
were accustomed to laboratory surroundings by being kept in
cages from one to two days before any observations were made.
The normal temperature curve of each animal was then estab-
lished by rectal temperature, taken every half hour from 8 or
9 A. M. until 3 or 4 p. m., the time to be covered by subsequent
experiments. As it seemed probable that the sodium bicar-
bonate salt solution used as the solvent for hematin might pro-
duce some toxic manifestations when injected intravenously,
the action of this solution was determined in a number of in-
stances, usually in such doses as were subsequently to be admin-
istered with the hematin. While these control tests were
usually made prior to the injection of hematin, some such tests
followed the administration of hematin. The animals were
next given intravenous injections of alkaline hematin at 8 or
9 A. M.^ and the resulting phenomena were noted, the tempera-
ture being taken as previously, although fifteen-minute obser-
vations were frequently made.

Dose of Hematin. — It is evident that the question of dosage
in such a series of experiments is one of prime importance. To
carry out the object of these experiments it is quite essential
that the dose of hematin employed be somewhat comparable
to that liberated into the human circulation at the time of seg-
mentation of a generation of parasites. While there is no evi-
dence to show that all the hemoglobin of the infected red cor-
puscles is decomposed to form hematin, if we may assume
that such is the case, and, further, that a 1 to 5 per cent,
infection of red blood corpuscles is not uncommon, we have
suflacient data upon which to base a calculation of the approx-

100

Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

imate amount of hematin liberated into the human host with
the segmentation of a given generation of parasites. Basing
our calculations on the presence of 8.5 grams of hemoglobin
per kilo of body weight, and 4.47 per cent, of hematin in hem-
oglobin,^ we find that in a 1 per cent, infection of the red blood
corpuscles approximately 3.7 milligrams of hematin per kilo
of body weight would be liberated. In my experiments the
dosage has varied from 1.3 milligrams to 28 milligrams per
kilo of body weight, given in single or in divided doses, corres-
ponding roughly to an infection of 0.3 to 7.5 per cent, of the
red blood corpuscles.

Normal Temperature of the Babbit. — ^In undertaking an
investigation which must necessarily deal so largely with varia-
tions in the temperature of the experimental animal, it is im-

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the experiments.

perative that the basis of comparison between normal and
abnormal fluctuations of temperature be as free from objection
as possible. Unfortunately, the temperature of different rabbits

= 01of Hammarsten, A Text Book of Physiological Chemistry, translated by
Mandel, New York, 1901, p. 139. These figures are probably high.

1912'] Malarial Pigment in Malarial Paroxysm 101

varies widely, even when kept under exactly the same condi-
tions. In apparently normal animals I have found the individ-
ual extremes between 98° and 103° F. Likewise, the fluctua-
tions of temperature in a given animal may be quite consid-
erable, but usually follow a fairly definite course.

The course and fluctuations of temperature of the normal
rabbit under experimental conditions, as well as the individual
difference in temperatures, are shown in text-figure 1. This
chart shows the normal temperatures recorded for rabbits 15,
16, 17, and 18. The first three animals were from the same
litter, about three-quarters grown, and weighed 1,600 to 1,700
grams. Number 18 was full grown and weighed 1,840 grams.
All the records were taken at the same time and all conditions
were as nearly alike as possible. While three of these curves
coincide closely, the fourth shows an extremely low and irreg-
ular curve of temperature. It should be noted that the temper-
ature in all instances has a downward trend during the morning
hours, and does not show an upward tendency until about noon,
when there is a gradual rise, which ultimately reaches as high
as the temperature at the first observation or even higher. This
temperature curve has been fairly constant in my entire series
of experiments.

Effect of Hematin upon Temperature. — If, for purposes of
comparison, we adopt the classical division of the malarial par-
oxysm into a cold stage, a hot stage, and a stage of sweating,
with the concomitant symptoms belonging to each, certain of
these manifestations are capable of accurate measurements in
an experimental animal, while others may be determined with
a fair degree of accuracy by close observations, and still others
are wholly indeterminable. Of prime importance among these
phenomena of the malarial paroxysm is the question of fever.

In estimating the temperature effects, in all instances at least
three facts are to be taken into consideration: the nature of
the effect, the degree of the effect, and the duration of the
effect. While it has been possible to assemble much of the data
concerning the effects of hematin upon the temperature in an
appended table which shows the abbreviated protocols of the

102

Journal of the Mitchell Society {^Decemher

entire series of experiments, it must be fully appreciated that
such tabulations of statistics are wholly inadequate to present
many features of the experiments that are equally as important
as those thus presented, and attention will be especially directed
to such features. Further, as can be seen from these tables, it
has been the object of the author to study effects in individual
animals with a variety of doses, as occasion suggested, rather
than to mould all the experiments to a single type or plan, for
it became evident early in this investigation that individual
peculiarities of the animals played a prominent role in the re-
sults obtained.

Without exception, every dose of hematin administered has
elicited a definite temperature response. With but three excep-
tions, this response has been characterized by a sharp rise in
temperature, reaching the fastigium in about an hour and a

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of hematin.

quarter. The further course was somewhat variable, although
in most cases with a dose of 15 milligrams, or less, per kilo,
there was a rather sharp fall of temperature for thirty minutes

1912] Malarial Pigment in Malarial Paroxysm

103

to one hour, followed by a secondary rise of variable extent and
duration or a very gradual decline requiring several hours to
reach normal again. Two such temperature curves are sho\vn
in text-figure 2.

These curves are subject to innumerable variations depending
upon the dose, the stage of the experiment, and upon the indi-
vidual peculiarities of animals. Some of the more important
variations are an accentuation and prolongation of the secon-
dary rise, usually shown with initial and large doses, or a
defervesence that is almost as sharp as the rise in temperature.
A third variation, which includes the three exceptions previ-
ously noted, is met with in instances of marked Intoxication
and is characterized by an initial drop in temperature with a
subsequent rise. All three of these modifications are illus-
trated in text-figure 3.

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of hematin or repeated injections of hematin.

104 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

The extent of the temperature elevation is, within certain
limits, proportional to the amount of hematin injected. The
temperature effect, being very slight with small doses, increases
with the dose, until we begin to obtain signs of an over-intox-
ication when the elevation may be much less than with smaller
doses, the optimum dose usually being between 10 and 15
milligrams per kilo of body weight. The elevation of temper-
ature obtained with such optimum doses is from 3° to 3.5° F.,
and it is exceptional that a greater rise is reached. Occasion-
ally, however, the temperature may rise 4° F. or even higher
in highly susceptible animals. The greatest elevation recorded
in my series of experiments was 4.9° F. in animal ISTo. 9, with
a dose of 18 milligrams of hematin per kilo.

In well-marked reactions, the temperature usually returns
to within the normal range in the course of three to five hours.
With large or initial injections of hematin, the period of
elevated temperature is more prolonged than under other
circumstances and seldom reaches normal in less than four
hours, occasionally requiring as much as six hours. Excep-
tionally, the return to normal may be rapid (text-figure 3).

The method of administration also plays an important part
\n the results. A given dose of hematin injected in two or three
fractional doses at intervals of fifteen to thirty minutes produces
a much more marked elevation of temperature than when given
at a single injection, an effect that is well sho-\vn in rabbit 13.
This is particularly true of the smaller, or optimum doses,
while with larger doses the increased potency may be man-
ifested by a slowing of the rise of temperature, a cessation of
the rise, or even a fall upon the injection of the second fraction,
as illustrated in rabbit 12.

Neither the source of the hematin nor the type of solution
seems to play an important part in the results that I have ob-
tained. That is, there has been but slight difference between
the action of rabbit, dog, or ox hematin, or between the action
of the perfectly clear hematin solution and that containing
much finely divided hematin in suspension.

However, a few tests seem to indicate that solutions of hem-

1912^ Malarial Pigment in Malarial Pakoxtsm 105

atin gradually lose their pjrogenic properties with age or when
subjected to high and prolonged temperature. This apparent
decrease may be seen by comparing the results obtained in
rabbit 7, injection 3, and rabbits 8, 10, and 11. Further, it
can readily be imagined that all animals will not be found
equally susceptible to the toxic action of hematin. A few will
exhibit a marked sensitiveness and a few will be found ex-
tremely resistant, the optimum dose in the one producing but
silight effect in the other. This variation in susceptibility was
strikingly illustrated by animals 13 and 14 which were under
observation at the same time. Rabbit 13 was a typically resist-
ant animal, and rabbit 14 was highly sensitive.

Effect of Sodium Bicarbonate Salt Solution upon the Tem-
perature. — Animals injected with the bicarbonate salt solution
alone, for purposes of control, almost invariably showed an
elevation of temperature in proportion to the size of the dose,
and about one-third to one-half the elevation produced with an
equal amount of hematin solution, depending somewhat upon
the concentration of the hematin in the solution. With small
doses of the control medium, the fluctuations of temperature
were usually within what might be termed the normal range
and were such that it is difficult to say whether they are more
than incidental to the process of injection. Large doses may
produce a rise in temperature corresponding approximately
to the over-intoxicating effect of large doses of hematin. In
such instances, however, other features of the clinical picture
will distinguish sharply between the two cases. In all instances,
therefore, there were distinct differences between the action
of the sodium bicarbonate salt solution and the action of the
hematin solution, such that there can be no question as to the
part played by the hematin in these experiments.

Other Phenomena of the Hematin Paroxysm. — Apart from
the elevation of temperature in the experimental animal, the
paroxysm of hematin intoxication presents other features
which are of equal importance and show a strong resemblance
to corresponding phenomena of the malarial paroxysm. For
the first fifteen to twenty minutes following the injection of

106 Journal of the Mitchell Society [^December

hematin, the rabbit usually manifests a slight degree of rest-
lessness, then crouches in a corner of the cage. In the second
stage of the paroxysm the vessels of the ears contract giving to
the shaved ears a pale and cyanotic hue, while at the same time
the ears become decidedly cold. In pronounced cases the surface
temperature (temperature of the ears) may be more than 30°
F. below the rectal temperature. The lowest temperature re-
corded in this series of experiments was 63.5° F. with
a room temperature of 62.5° F., and a rectal temperature
of 105° F. During this stage the animal's ears usually
lie on its back, and the hair tends to become erect, pre-
senting the picture of an animal that is cold. Meanwhile, the
rabbit shows convulsive tremors or shivering, but rarely any
continued or pronounced shaking. This stage of chill lasts
from forty-five minutes to one hour, and is terminated rather
abruptly by a dilation of the superficial vessels, the ears rapidly
becoming flushed and hot. The animal now moves about the
cage or stretches out and remains quiet. Further than this,
the third or hot stage of the paroxysm possesses no especial
symptoms and its limit can be fixed only by the course of the
temperature, which may remain well above normal for several
hours, or sink to normal within an hour. During the third
stage and the latter part of the second stage of the paroxysm
the animal shows a pronounced thirst which is undoubtedly
referable to the febrile condition.

The most striking and at the same time the most constant
of all these symptoms are the contraction and dilatation of the
superficial vessels associated with the corresponding lowering
and elevation of the surface temperature.

The contrast between the symptoms of the animal injected
with hematin and those of control animals is quite as sharp as
in the instance of the temperatures. With doses of hematin
sufiiciently large to produce pronounced symptoms of the type
described, corresponding doses of sodium bicarbonate salt solu-
tion produce practically no recognizable effect. There may be
a suggestive or very transient change in the surface vessels and
the temperature, but nothing that is definite or constant. When,

1912'] Malarial Pigment in Malarial Paroxysm 107

however, larger doses, e. g., ten cubic centimeters per kilo, are
given, phenomena simulating the picture of hematin intoxica-
tion may be elicited, but the changes are not so definite or con-
stant.

If now we correlate these symptoms with the temperature
curve, we find that the elevation of temperature during the first
stage is slight, and that the second stage of the paroxysm cor-
responds closely with the period of rising temperature, the in-
itial drop coinciding sharply with the vascular dilatation and
flushing of the ears and the elevation of the surface temper-
ature. The third or hot stage, as previously noted, corresponds
to the duration of the temperature above normal.

As in the case of the temperature, all other phenomena of
hematin intoxication seem to be exaggerated when a given dose
of hematin is divided into several fractional doses, the cycle
of phenomena following closely consequent changes in the tem-
perature curve.

It must be pointed out, however, that the prominence of
these paroxysmal phenomena and the degree of elevation of the
temperature are by no means always parallel. The toxic par-
oxysmal phenomena may be present to a high degree in an ani-
mal that shows only a slight elevation of temperature, and in
most instances such a condition is to be regarded as evidence
of over-intoxication.

Acquired Resistance. — Early in the course of these experi-
ments it became evident that repeated injections of a given dose
of hematin in the same animal did not give uniform results.
The results, however, were of such a nature as to suggest that
the animal acquired a certain degree of tolerance which, in
turn, might be broken when the intoxication was pushed suffi-
ciently. To determine this point the following experiment was
carried out.

Experiment. — Four rabbits, weighing respectively i,6oo, 1,650, 1,790, and
1,840 grams, were injected on ten successive days with a solution of ox
hematin containing 5 mg. of hematin to i c.c. The first two animals
received 10 mg. of hematin per kilo of body weight, and the other two
received 15 mg. per kilo. Rectal temperatures were recorded every half
hour.

The results are shown in text-figure 4. In a is shown the

108

Journal of the Mitchell Society \_Decemher

differences of elevation of temperature on successive days
of the two animals receiving ten milligrams per kilo, and in b
those receiving fifteen milligrams per kilo.

Da

y

1

2

3

4

5

G

7

6

9

10

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

,=J

4

^

n

1d

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i\

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'-'

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3

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Text-fig. 4. Variations in the elevation of the temperature with repeated
injections of a given does of hematin.

While the curve of temperature reaction in each case is
extremely irregular, it is in general characterized by a tend-
ency towards a decrease, which in the instance of animals 16
and 17 persists throughout the experiment. With animals 15
and 18, however, a second phase of increased reaction is devel-
oped. These animals also exhibited the most marked sympto-
matic effects throughout the experiment. If the temperature
curve alone be considered, it is certain that the tendency is
toward a decreasing response to successive injections of hem-
atin, and this I have found to be true in other experiments. If
we take into consideration other evidence of intoxication,
however, as in animals 15 and 18, this decrease seems referable
not so much to a tolerance as to over-intoxication. Again, as
these symptoms of intoxication decrease and the fluctuations
of temperature increase correspondingly, there may be devel-
oped a certain degree of tolerance. On the other hand, as
shown in animals 16 and 17, there may be an increasing resist-
ance to the hematin from the start as the toxic symptoms as
well as the temperature decrease proportionally.

1912] Malarial Pigment in Malarial Paroxysm 109

This subject of acquired tolerance has been taken up largely
to emphasize the importance to be attached to results obtained
from properly adjusted initial doses of hematin, but also to
explain the apparent discrepancies in the results from any
series of hematin injections. It is the initial injection, with
but few exceptions, that gives the maximum temperature reac-
tion obtainable with a given dose of hematin until the series
of injections has been extended to such a degree as to permit
of the acquirement of a tolerance in highly susceptible animals
or to cause a break in the early acquired tolerance of more
resistant animals. When such conditions supervene, the tem-
perature reaction may again increase and show an even greater
response than with the initial injection (table I, animals 9
and 18).

SUMMARY.

The paroxysm of hematin intoxication in the rabbit un-
doubtedly presents many features of striking similarity to the
paroxysm of human malaria ; still one must hesitate to apply
such results unreservedly in an attempt to identify the causative
agent of the malarial paroxysm. When, in addition to the
character of the paroxysm, we consider the sequence of events
in the two instances, the analogy becomes so close that it seems
impossible to regard the matter as a mere coincidence. The
injection of hematin, especially in fractional doses, is in a
measure comparable to the liberation of hematin into the
human circulation by the malarial parasite. In these experi-
ments, both solution and finely divided suspensions of hematin
have been found equally effective in eliciting the phenomena
of the paroxysm, and while it seems possible that a portion of
the malarial pigment might be dissolved in the alkaline human
serum, such an assumption is probably not essential.

It might be objected that the toxic action of foreign hematin
thus injected into the circulation would probably be greater
than that of hematin derived from an animal's own blood, but
as far as I have been able to determine, this objection does not
seem valid, as rabbit hematin, dog hematin, and ox hematin

110

Journal of the Mitchell Society {Decemher

M

Rabbit hematin in all in-
jections.

Highest temperature on
secondary rise.

In two doses, 5 minutes
apart. Died 3 hours
after injection.

Rabbit hematin.

Initial rise to 106 degrees
with fall to 105.3 degrees
F. and second rise.

2.5 c.c. thick suspension of
hematin in 0.85 per cent,
salt solution. Died in-
stantly.

i

XI

1

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102.6

105.0
102.8

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Jan. 27, 1911

Jan. 30, 1911
Jan. 31, 1911
Feb. 1, 1911
Feb. 2, 1911

Feb. 1, 1911
Feb. 2, 1911
Feb. 3, 1911
Feb. 7, 1911
Feb. 8, 1911
Feb. 9, 1911
Feb. 11, 1911
Feb. 15, 1911
Feb. 16, 1911

rH
rH
OS

1—1

00
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Feb. 8, 1911
Feb. 9. 1911
Feb. 11. 1911
Feb. 15. 1911

; iBiniuy JO "o^i

No. 1.
Weight,
2.49.

No. 2.
Weight,
2.78.

No. 3.
Weight,
2.9.

No. 4.
Weight,
2.65.

1912^ Malarial Pigment in Malarial Paroxysm 111

■"J
a
»

Temperature dropped to
100.7 degrees F., then rose
very slowly.

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Hematin solution 5 mos.
old, same as that used in
No. 7, injection 3.

Oxhematin in all injections

An afternoon experiment.
Temperature back to 103.6
degrees in lyg hours.

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May 1, 1911
May 2, 1911
May 3, 1911

May 1, 1911
May 2, 1911
May 3, 1911
May 4, 1911

May 1, 1911
May 2, 1911
May 3, 1911

rHi— 1
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Oct. 20, 1911
Oct. 23, 1911
Oct. 25, 1911
Oct. 26, 1911
Oct. 27, 1911
Nov. 1, 1911

•sons UI :»qSiaM
: iBiniuv JO OM

No. 4.
Weight,
2.65.

No. 5.
Weight,

2.85.

No. 6.
Weight,
2.57.

No. 7.
Weight,
2.53.

No. 8.
Weight,

1.85.

No. 9.

Weight,
2.05.

112

Journal of the Mitchell, Society \_December

OS

%

d

a

CO
V

O

.a «3

gi

Hematin solution 51/2 mos.
.old, same as No 7 injec-
tion 3,and No. 8, injec-
tion 2.

Hematin solution, same as

No. 10.
Ox hematin in all other

injections.

Ox hematin.

In two doses 30 minutes
apart. Initial rise check-
ed by second dose.

Apparently about optl
mum dose.

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sanoq g ean^Baadniej:

UO

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Oct. 27, 1911
Nov. 3, 1911
Nov. 6, 1911
Nov. 8, 1911
Nov. 10, 1911
Nov. 13, 1911
Nov. 15, 1911
Nov. 17, 1911

Nov. 10, 1911
Nov. 13, 1911
Nov. 15, 1911
Nov. 17, 1911
Nov. 20, 1911

Nov. 22. 1911

Nov. 24. 1911
Nov. 27, 1911

•soiiH UI :»qSiaM
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No. 9.
Weight,
2.05.

No. 10.
Weight.
1.85.

No. 11.
Weight,
2.0.

No. 12.
Weight.
2.0.

19122 Malarial Pigment in Malarial Paeoxysm 113

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Single dose.
In 2 doses 30
In 2 doses 30
In 2 doses 30
In 2 doses 30
In 2 doses 30
In 2 doses 30
Single dose.
Single dose.
Given in 2 do
apart.

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1912^ Malarial Pigment in Malarial Paroxysm 115

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116 Journal of the Mitchell Society ^December

produce in the rabbit effects that are alike in both character
and degree.

The dose of hematin remains as the one factor to which it
is possible to attach some degree of uncertainty, but even here
the author feels that the range of experimental conditions has
been kept within the bounds of legitimate analogy with condi-
tions existing in the human subject of malarial infection.

Finally, the most conservative estimate of the value of such
experiments points strongly to the fact that we have at least a
potentially toxic substance in the pigment hematin as liberated
by the malarial parasite into the circulation of the human host.

There is also abundant evidence to show that the action of
hematin is not confined to the paroxysmal phenomena of ma-
laria, but that other features of the disease may find their ex-
planation in the action of this pigment. For the present, how-
ever, it seems advisable to confine the discussion to this one
phase of the question.

CONCLUSIONS.

1. Alkaline hematin in doses commensurate with the
amounts of hematin liberated in the human circulation by the
segmentation of the malarial parasite, produces, when injected
intravenously into the rabbit, a paroxysm which is character-
ized by a short prodromal stage, a stage of chill and rising tem-
perature, and a hot stage. In their details the phases of this
paroxysm are practically identical with the corresponding ones
in the paroxysm of human malaria.

2. The phenomena in human beings infected with malaria
are, at least in part, directly referable to the toxic action of
this malarial pigment.

University of North Carolina.

THE PAST, PKESENT, AND FUTURE OF THE
NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY.*

By Chas. H. Herty.

The limited use of the oleoresinous exudate of pine trees
dates back many centuries, but the real beginning of an indus-
try on a large scale is closely associated with the discovery of
the vast pine forests which extend along the southeastern and
southern coasts of the United States from North Carolina to
Texas.

These forests lie chiefly in the coastal plain and in the slightly
hilly country between the Piedmont plateau and the coastal
plain, a strip varying in width from one hundred to two hun-
dred miles and characterized by a sandy soil, covered for the
most part with " wire-grass," this furnishing a beautiful carpet
of green in spring and summer, but making a serious fire risk in
winter. The longleaf pine readily sheds its lower limbs, espe-
cially in close stands, so that the forests are remarkably open
and free from that undergrowth, which, in the northwest, leads
to such destructive forest fires.

The early settlers in eastern North Carolina began the exploi-
tation of their forests of longleaf pine for the purpose of pro-
viding tar and pitch for use in the construction of wooden ships,
and gradually extended their operations to the collection of crude
turpentine which was shipped to northern cities or England for
distillation. The forests covered the entire territory and, as
clearings for farms were needed, destructive methods of opera-
tion were welcomed and encouraged.

At the same time limited operations were being conducted
upon the maritime pine in southwestern France between Bor-
deaux and Bayonne. To receive the crude turpentine the
French made use of a hole dug in the sand at the base of the
tree. The oleoresin flowing from the wound on the trunk above
was collected in these holes. Necessarily by this method much
of the material was wasted and rendered impure.

* Reprinted from Original Communications, Eighth International Congress of
Applied Chemistry. Vol. XII, p. 101.

118 JouEisrAL OF THE MiTCHELL SociETY [^December

AMERICAN METHOD OF COLLECTION.

In North Carolina the method of collection was improved,
or thought to be improved, by cutting a large opening, the
" box," in the base of the tree. Into this box the crude turpen-
tine flowed and was collected at regular intervals. The con-
servative character of the men engaged in this industry led to
the continuance of this wasteful and destructive method of
" boxing " until the very recent past.

Briefly, the method of operating so long in use in the United
States is as follows : In the winter the laborers are engaged in
cutting " boxes." Each box is then " cornered," a wide chip
being removed from each half of the box to provide a surface
suitable for directing the flow of crude turpentine to the box.
Meanwhile, other laborers are employed in clearing all com-
bustible material from around each tree, " raking." Ground
fires are then started to consume the dead wire grass, chips,
etc. With the opening of spring " chipping " begins. This
consists in scarifying each week the trunk of the tree above the
" cornered " surface by means of a " hack," a U shaped steel
tool set in a wooden handle. Attached to this handle is a heavy
iron weight to give momentum to the free arm swing used in
chipping. After four or five weeks the " boxes " average a good
filling and the crude turpentine, "dip," is then transferred to
buckets by flat, iron paddles, and from the buckets it is col-
lected in barrels conveniently placed in the woods. In the fall,
at the end of the chipping season, the hardened oleoresin, which
which has gradually collected during the chipping season on the
scarified surface of the tree, is removed by scraping, giving thus
the name " scrape " to this product, which is sold as " Gum
Thus," or distilled. In the following winter the trees are again
raked and the grass fired, and in the spring chipping is resumed
at the point on the trunk of each tree where it ceased the pre-
vious year. This cycle is usually continued from three to four
years, although in early days it was often continued ten or
twelve years, the scarified surface extending high on the trunks.
Necessarily the yield from such high chipping was largely de-
creased, owing to the increased distance of flow to the receptacle.

1912] The Naval Stores iNDusTRt 119

In the early days of the North Carolina industry, no effort
was made to distill the product, but gradually it became clear
that it would be better to separate the crude turpentine into
spirits of turpentine and rosin by distillation in the woods.
For this purpose iron stills were used at first, but results were
unsatisfactory until the introduction of copper stills, which
were less liable to crack and could be heated with greater uni-
formity and better control.

The industry now began to grow rapidly and before many
years it was found that the supply of available timber in North
Carolina was rapidly decreasing. This led many of the opera-
tors to transfer their operations to the virgin forests of the ad-
joining state of South Carolina, where the same destructive
methods were applied by the same men or their descendants. In
this way, and for these reasons, the center of the industry has
gradually moved southward and then westward as evidenced by
the relative prominence of the ports for exports of the pro-
ducts ; first Wilmington, N. C, then Charleston, S. C, then
Savannah, Ga., and now the latter, together with Jacksonville,
Fla., and the gulf ports, Tampa, Fla., Pensacola, Fla., Mobile,
Ala., Gulf port, Miss., New Orleans, La., and others.

FRENCH IMPROVEMENTS.

The steady growth of the American industry received a seri-
ous check during the Civil War. The consequent scarcity of
the products was accompanied by an abnormal increase in their
value. This enhanced valuation led Hugues, a Frenchman, to
propose a less wasteful method for the French forests than the
hole dug in the sand. He proposed as a substitute a clay pot,
holding about one pint. The pot was supported on its bottom
by a large nail driven into the tree and on one side of its upper
rim by a strip of sheet zinc, approximately 2" x 4'', slightly
curved and driven into a correspondingly upwardly inclined cut
in the wood. This spout served to direct the oleoresin into the
pot. At first his proposition was scoffed at and the peasants
amused themselves by breaking the little pots. It is a pitiful

120 JouBNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SociETY {^December

commentary that Hugues died in poverty ; but his ideas lived
and gradually became adopted in France.

AMERICAN IMPROVEMENTS.

As the knowledge of the new method in France spread to this
country, numerous efforts were made to apply similar forms of
apparatus to the American system of chipping, but for many
years such efforts failed. No less than iifteen patents were
issued in the United States on this subject, but no one of them
proved a commercial success.

Eleven years ago the writer began a series of field experi-
ments on a small scale in the turpentine forests of South Geor-
gia. One feature of these experiments was the use of a mod-
ification of the Hugues system, consisting of two separate metal-
lic gutters, inserted in upwardly inclined cuts in the tree, along
which the oleoresin flows. The upper and shorter gutter is
separated at its lower end about one inch from the lower gutter
and empties into it. The lower gutter extends from two to three
inches beyond the center of the angular scarified surface formed
in chipping, and serves as a spout to convey the oleoresin to a
cup suspended from a nail just below the end of the gutter.
These cups are made either of well burned clay or galvanized
iron, and have a capacity of one quart.

Attracted by the promising character of these preliminary
experiments, the U. S. Bureau of Forestry began a series of
field tests of the apparatus on a large scale, the work being
under the immediate supervision of the writer. Before the end
of the first season of testing it was evident that the apparatus
was a practical success, and the results attained, both as to
quantity and quality of oleoresin, justified the hope of immedi-
ate commercial introduction of the system. But the habits of
long years made difficult the adoption of such an innovation.
This ultra-conservatism was slowly overcome and the adoption
of the new system spread rapidly. Only a few more years will
be required to witness the complete replacement of the " box "
by the " cup " system in American forests. A detailed account

1912] The Naval Stokes Industry 121

of these experiments is given in Bulletin No. 40 and Circular
No. 34 of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry.

With the main points at issue settled, namely — improved
yields both in quantity and quality of the products and preser-
vation of the trees, other forms of apparatus were devised to
meet the objections of some of the operators to certain points in
the cup and gutter system. Many of these have never proved
practical, but some have been introduced on a considerable com-
mercial scale.

The successful outcome of the experiments on the relative
yields from the " box " and the " cup " system led the United
States Forest Service to further experiments in more conserva-
tive treatment of the trees in chipping. Comparative studies
were made of the yield from deep and shallow chipping and the
latter found to give the greater yield during a period of four
years of operation. Other experiments showed that a less rapid
rate of ascent of the trunk also gave larger yields, and experi-
ments combining these several modifications of present practices
showed a largely increased yield. A final set of experiments
pointed clearly the rational way to a perpetuation of the naval
stores industry in America. The details of this investigation
are given in Bulletin No. 90 of the United States Forest
Service.

DISTILLATION.

In the matter of distillation, only slight advances have been
made in America. The uniform process consists in the use of a
large copper kettle and condensing worm. The charge for a
distillation averages nine to ten barrels of crude turpentine.
The kettle is heated by free flame and during the distillation a
small stream of hot water from the top of the condenser tub is
admitted through an opening in the upper part of the kettle,
thus facilitating the removal of the volatile oil. The condensed
spirits of turpentine and water separate in the receiver, owing
to difference in specific gravity, and the lighter spirits of tur-
pentine is transferred to oak barrels, well coated with glue on
the inside. No effort is made to redistill this product, and it
always comes upon the market contaminated by a small amount

122 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Deceniber

of resin carried over mechanically during distillation. After
most of the volatile oil has passed off, the still cap is removed,
excess water in the kettle boiled off, and the molten rosin drawn
off through a tap in the bottom of the kettle onto a coarse wire
filter, then through a second filter of fine mesh wire overlaid
with cotton batting. The molten rosin is then dipped into
wooden barrels luted with clay and solidifies on cooling. In
this condition it is shipped to market.

The usual method of controlling the distillation is by the
sound heard at the mouth of the condenser worm. Within the
past three years a number of American operators have substi-
tuted for this method that of thermometer control with very
excellent results.

In France, much more progress has been made in the art of
distillation. Among the French distilleries there are three dis-
tinct types: first, a system closely resembling the American;
second, distillation solely by steam in steam jacketed vessels;
and third, a mixed system in which there is direct contact of
fire with the kettle during the first stage of the distillation, then
replacement of this by mixed injection of steam and hot water.
By this means, a constant temperature is maintained, enabling
the complete removal of all spirits of turpentine without danger
of scorching the rosin.

It can be readily understood that in France, under proper
methods of forestry, with conservative tapping of the trees and
provision for systematic reforestration, a distillery can look
forward to a permanent supply of raw material. Hence there is
justification for the more costly plants and more efficient meth-
ods of distillation ; but in America, where under past methods
the industry shifts so rapidly, so great an outlay of capital for
this purpose would not be justified. There is no doubt that with
an excellent " stiller " very good results can be obtained under
the American system, but the personal element of the stiller
enters into the question and this could be easily avoided without
any great outlay of capital by adopting the French system of
mixed injection.

Quite recently M. Castets has erected near Dax, France, a

1912] The ISTaval Stokes Industry 123

distillery which combines the features of continuous distillation
in a partial vacuum and condensation by pressure of the waste
spirits of turpentine vapors from the ordinary condenser in a
second condenser attached to the first, thus increasing notably
the yield of volatile oil and improving the quality of the rosin.

THE INDUSTRY IN OTHER COUNTRIES.

There is no need of any especial consideration of the Spanish
industry, which has developed considerably during the past
decade. The operations are essentially the same as the French,
and the same species of pine, Pinus Maritima, is exploited.

In Austria the industry is more limited and is even more de-
structive than by the old American system ; a " box " being cut
in the base of the tree, Pinus Laricio, and the trunk of the tree
scarified for at least fifty per cent, of its circumference, the
oleoresin being directed towards the center of the scarified sur-
face by thin wooden strips inserted in downward cuts in
the tree.

In Russia the chief tree exploited is Pinus Sylvestris. Cli-
matic conditions do not admit of the usual process of collecting
the crude turpentine at regular intervals. Instead, the trees
are scarified in the spring over a space about three feet high
and almost encircling the tree. During the year a mass of hard-
ened rosin collects on this surface. In the winter it is scraped
from the tree and distilled for its volatile oil and resin. This
process is repeated for five years. The tree is then felled and
the rosinous portion of the tree subjected to destructive distilla-
tion. In other districts no effort is made to collect the rosin
from the trees annually, but this is allowed to remain until the
end of the fifth year of scarification. The tree is then felled
and that part containing the rosin distilled first at a low tem-
perature to obtain the volatile oil, then at a more elevated tem-
perature to obtain tar and charcoal by destructive distillation
of the wood.

The spirits of turpentine from Germany, Sweden, and Fin-
land, seems to be a product solely of the destructive distillation
of resinous wood.

124 Journal of the Mitchell Society ^December

The production of naval stores in India and other tropical
countries is at present on too small a commercial scale to call
for any detailed discussion here.

WOOD SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE.

Among the various departments of the naval stores industry
in America none has had a more varied and interesting career
than that of the production of " wood spirits of turpentine " by
destructive distillation of resinous wood. Years ago consider-
able capital was invested in plants for utilizing the by-products
formed during the destructive distillation of " fat lightwood."
None of the plants were commercially successful and for awhile
nothing was heard of the industry. But with the increase in
price of spirits of turpentine resulting from the formation of
the Turpentine Operators Association in 1902 a fresh impetus
was given to the " wood spirits of turpentine " industry. At
first somewhat crude methods of destructive distillation were
advocated, and as the promoters of this industry appealed
largely to local interest in having stumps for distillation re-
moved from fields suitable for cultivation, a double impetus was
received. Much enthusiasm was aroused, and a number of
plants constructed. But the industry received a serious blow in
the refusal of the varnish makers to use the impure " wood
spirits of turpentine " manufactured, by the failure to find a
market for many of the heavier oils and the coke, and by the
destruction by fire of many of the improperly constructed
plants.

The price of spirits of turpentine continued to rise and led to
the development of the steam extraction process for manufac-
ture of wood spirits of turpentine. After thorough grinding,
the wood is treated in iron retorts with steam, and the volatile
oil distilled, no effort being made to obtain any other product.
By one redistillation of the product a very high grade spirits of
turpentine is obtained, equal, if not superior, to that from the
living tree. Unfortunately, the yield is not sufiiciently large to
make the process remunerative.

Quite a different process is employed by those plants which

1912'] The Naval Stores Industry 125

utilize a bath of molten rosin for removal of the spirits of tur-
pentine from the wood, with subsequent distillation of the vola-
tile oil from this bath. Such plants seem to have met with a
fair measure of success.

More recently extraction processes have been developed
which employ low boiling petroleum products as the extractive.
Such plants recover both the spirits of turpentine and the rosin
from the ground wood, and have a great advantage in the pres-
ent very high value of rosin. These plants are also utilizing the
refuse from the straining of rosin at the distilleries in the woods,
a product formerly burned on the waste piles, but now bringing
nineteen dollars per ton. This method is adding a considerable
amount to the annual output of rosin.

The most recent development is a plant for destructive dis-
tillation of wood in retorts heated by jackets filled with high
boiling petroleum fractions. By this means a fire risk is prac-
tically completely eliminated and the results indicate that by
means of the complete and ready temperature control of the oil
jacket larger yields of better products can be obtained.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF NAVAL STORES.

ISTo subject connected with the naval stores industry admits
of so little accuracy of statement as does that of statistics on
the total annual production. The most careful estimates are at
best only approximations. This is unfortunate, for in the past
it has frequently led to speculative manipulations of the market
and the temporary establishment of values which had no legiti-
mate basis depending on supply and demand.

The following table of annual production is given therefore,
as an approximation only, but it is believed to be a reasonably
accurate approximation :

126

Journal of the Mitchell Society [Decemher

Spirits of Turpentine
(barrels 52 gallonsj

Rosin
(barrels 500 lbs.)

America

Prance

Spain

Austria

600,000

100,000
25,000
3,000
50,000 (?)

2,100,000

350,000

87,500

10,500

Other countries

(?)

Total estimated production . .

778,000

2,548,000

PRODUCTION OF CRUDE TURPENTINE PER TREE.

Here again definite figures are difficult to give, for there is
no reliable information concerning the number of trees in opera-
tion. Furthermore, there is often very wide variation in the
producing power of adjacent trees of the same species, size, and
crown. But from the data in the publications of the United
States Forest Service, an average American pine, worked under
the cup system, will produce, during four years of operation, an
annual average of ten pounds of crude turpentine and two and
a half pounds of "scrape," the proportionate yield being con-
siderably greater during the first and second than during the
third and fourth years of operation.

The average daily flow of crude turpentine during one week
from a freshly chipped surface on such pines is shown in the
following table, the results having been obtained during the
summer of 1901 on trees near Statesboro, Georgia:

Yield per tree (grams)

Average

Per cent.

yield

Day

1

2

3

(grams)

average yield

1

113.0

46.5

89.0

82.8

62.9

2

22.5

7.5

16.0

15.3

11.6

3

13.5

6.5

16.0

12.0

9.1

4

9.0

5.0

17.0

7.0

5.3

5&6

9.0

5.0

23.0

12.3

9.3

7

1.0
168.0

2.0
72.5

4.0
165.0

2.3
131.7

1.8

Total

100.0

1912] The Naval Stokes Industry 127

TscHiRcii's Views on Resin Flow

As to the seat of resin production and cause of resin flow,
most valuable and important views have been advanced by
Prof. A. Tschirch in his book " Die Harze und die Harzbehal-
ter," 2nd edition. Tschirch has shown that the seat of resin
production is a mucilaginous layer lining the inner walls of
the resin ducts. These ducts he divides into two classes: First
— primary ducts, whose resin is to be considered a true physio-
logical product. Such ducts occur irregularly and in varying
number in any pine. They play only an insignificant role as
producers of commerical crude turpentine. Second — secondary
resin ducts which form in large numbers in the outer layers of
the new wood after a tree is wounded, both above and below the
wound. Their oleoresinous exudate is, therefore, a patho<-
logical product. It is from such pathological ducts that the
great bulk of crude turpentine is obtained.

The application of these views to practical problems in the
turpentine forests has already yielded important and fruitful
results.

Future of the Industry

During the past few years the statement has frequently been
made that from present indications the naval stores industry
must cease to exist, at least as a large industry, within the next
twenty years. While it is true that there are danger signals
which must be heeded, such pessimistic views do not seem to be
well grounded.

Certainly in France and consequently in Spain, where the
same system is in operation, the industry has been placed upon
a self-perpetuating basis.

In America we have been prodigal with our wealth of virgin
forest.

But it must be remembered that until the last decade these
forests have had a very low commercial valuation. The average
price for well timbered lands in our southern states not many
years ago was approximately one dollar per acre, land, timber,
and all. Indeed, the popular term applied to all holders of

128 Journal of the Mitchell Society {^December

large tracts of such lands was " land poor," as expense of taxa-
tion, protection, etc., exceeded any hope of probable profit.
This condition was largely due to lack of transportation facili-
ties, insecurity of title, low price of naval stores and lumber,
lack of knowledge of the farming value of much of the land on
which these forests stood, and the belief that the forests were
inexhaustible.

ISTow conditions have entirely changed. Railroads penetrate
every portion of the territory, titles have been cleared, prices of
naval stores have brought wealth to the operators, the lumber-
men from Michigan, Wisconsin, and other northern states
have turned from the rapidly disappearing white pine forests of
the north to those of the southern yellow pine; where forests
once stood farms have been developed which surpass in fertility
any other portion of the southern states, and a clear knowledge
has been gained that the forests are by no means inexhaustible.
Furthermore, the spirit of conservation of natural resources has
made itself felt in this field as well as in those of minerals,
water power, etc.

The consequence of these changes has been a very rapid en-
hancement in the value of such holdings. And with increased
valuation comes naturally the desire to protect and use con-
servatively. Unquestionably, the stand of virgin forest will still
further diminish, for the demand for farm lands is active, the
call for lumber imperative, and the danger of tropical storms
along the Gulf Coast ever present. With such diminution in
supply will come still further enhancement in values and still
more conservative methods of operation.

So much for the present stand of virgin forest. If the situa-
tion were limited to this alone, the outlook might be considered
gloomy. But it must be remembered that there are vast tracts
of cut-over lands in portions of the southern states whose clay
sub-soil lies so deep that the lands are not suited to agriculture.
On such lands the longleaf pine, with its long tap root, prospers.
Magnificent forests once covered every acre of such lands and
fortunately tree planting is not required to reproduce such
forests. ISTature alone will again cover this territory with a

1912] The Naval Stores Industry 129

wealth of forest, provided Nature is given an opportunity ; for
the most superficial observer who travels through this territory
will testify that where conditions have been favorable natural
reproduction has brought again splendid, though small, young
forests.

Against this willingness of Nature to restore this rich heritage
to us, stand three agencies :

First, and of least importance, the consumption by hogs of
the delicately flavored and nutritious seed of the longleaf pine.
This is a real factor in certain somewhat restricted districts.
The constantly spreading sentiment for " stock laws" will
check this evil.

Second, and of the very greatest importance, the destructive
action of the ground fires. Fig. 7, which annually sweep over the
entire turpentine belt. Such fires destroy the myriads of young
seedlings which can readily be seen springing up in the wire
grass which surrounds them on every side. The seedling de-
votes the greater part of its early energies to sending down its
long tap root through the deep sands rather than to strengthen-
ing its stalk above ground ; hence, in most cases, it is not able
to withstand the constantly recurring ground fires. The doc-
trinaire may rail against the evils of such firing of the woods,
but from one who has lived among the turpentine camps there
comes no word of reproach against the turpentine operator who
" burns the woods." His all is invested on the outer surface of
his trees. A serious outbreak of fire during midseason means
financial ruin. The carelessness and sometimes viciousness of
laborers is too serious a risk to run with a mass of dead w're
grass covering every foot of his territory. Naturally he protects
himself by burning this grass when he is prepared for it, afier
" raking season."

Where then is the hope for reforestration ? In the realization
of the value of the waste cut-over lands where turpentine opera-
tions cannot be carried on for lack of timber. Such lands hg'e
now but little value, but the lesson of France shows that even
there a reasonable income begins from artificial reproduction
within a period of twenty years and then rapidly increases.

130 Journal, of the Mitchell Society \_Decemher

With our warm southern climate the prospect for rich returns
from such investments should be even greater than in France.

Third, the greed of man. If we are to have a self -perpetuating
industry, even stock laws and the reforestration of waste lands
will not avail if a practice on the part of turpentine operators
during the past two years continues. The abnormally high
price of spirits of turpentine two years ago led to a wild scram-
ble for timber for increased operations. At the same time the
efficiency of the cup system was just gaining wide recognition.
Realizing that a tree too small to have a "box" cut in it could
be worked with a cup hung upon it, the operators throughout
the whole region proceeded to cup every small tree to which
access could be gained. In many cases new farms were opened
on old abandoned territory where natural reproduction had fur-
nished thrifty young forests. The result was over-production
of crude turpentine. The temporary benefit to the consumers
in the drop in values following this over-production was dearly
bought, for the price was the destruction of young forests which
in time should have produced their full share of the world's
need of spirits of turpentine and rosin. Common sense must
'and will govern in this matter. It is only necessary for the
operators to realize that the yield from such saplings does not
meet the cost of production, then the practice will cease.

Surely the above considerations justify an optimistic view of
the future of the naval stores industry. But experiment, dem-
onstration, statistics, and knowledge of progress made in other
lands, must lead the way for the man in the woods.
University of North Carolina.

THE KESENES OF RESINS AND OLEORESINS*

By Chas. H. Herty and W. S. Dickson

The oleoresinous exudate of pine trees, commonly called
" crude turpentine," consists of a mixture of a volatile oil, acids
and unsaponifiable matter. On distillation with steam the
volatile oil, "spirits of turpentine," passes off; the residual
resin, freed from excess of water by heating, solidifies on cooling
and constitutes commercial " rosin." The name " resene" has
been applied by Tschirch^ to the non-volatile, unsaponifiable

^ Tschirch, " Die Harze und die Harzbehaeter," Second edition, p. 1079.

constituent of such resins and oleoresins.

Though the composition of crude turpentine varies consider-
ably in different specimens, an average analysis of specimens
collected by the usual commercial methods would show approx-
imately : *

Per cent.

Spirits of turpentine 20

Acids 74

Resene, 6

Resenes, according to their origin, show varying physical
states, some being colorless solids while many are very viscous
liquids, extremely sticky and non-crystallizable. They are com-
posed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but the per cent, of
oxygen is usually smaller than in the accompanying acids.
Toward reagents they are very resistant, especially toward alka-
lies. Although containing oxygen, they show, according to
Tschirch,^ none of the usual reactions indicating the presence
of hydroxyl, carboxyl, aldehyde or ketone oxygen, nor are they
ethereal salts or lactones. Tschirch inclines to the view that
they belong to the class of exyterpenes or oxypolyterpenes.

While much work has been done upon the volatile oils and the
acids of oleoresins, little attention has been paid to the resenes,
except ultimate analyses and approximate statements of the pro-
portion present in isolated specimens studied. In connection

* Reprinted from the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. IV,
No. 7, July, 1912.
^Loc. cit.

132 Journal of the Mitchell Society {^Decemher

with an investigation carried out in this laboratory in collabora-
tion with the United States Forest Service, there remained a
large number of specimens of resin from well identified individ-
ual trees growing in Florida. It seemed desirable, therefore, to
study more closely the question of the proportions of resene in
these specimens. The investigation was extended to the resins
of conifers growing near this laboratory, and to specimens col-
lected in other countries. Finally the amount of resene was
determined in several oleoresins obtained in perfectly fresh
condition from individual trees in Florida. These specimens
were collected from the two species of pines from which crude
turpentine is commercially obtained in this country. Firms
Palustris (Longleaf Pine), and Pinus Hetrophylla (Cuban or
Slash Pine).

The resins were obtained by distilling the oleoresins in a cur-
rent of steam slightly superheated, the temperature being raised
to 140*^ C. toward the end of the distillation. After complete
removal of the volatile oil, the residue was kept at 140^ C. in
the oil bath surrounding the distillation flask until all water was
driven off. The molten resin was then filtered through absorbent
cotton and cooled to solidification in glass or iron molds.

The determination of resene in the resins was carried out in
the usual manner. The weighed specimen, about two grams,
was dissolved in a considerable excess of N'^2 alcoholic potas-
sium hydroxide, allowed to stand at room temperature eighteen
hours, diluted with water until separation of the resene began
and the solution cleared by the addition of a small quantity of
ninety-five per cent, alcohol. This solution was then extracted
three times with petroleum ether, boiling below 40 °c. The com-
bined extracts were shaken out with fifty per cent, alcohol to
remove slight amounts of dissolved potassium salts of resin
acids. After drawing off the petroleum ether extract into a
weighed glass evaporating dish, it was allowed to evaporate
spontaneously to constant weight.

In the case of the oleoresins, after spontaneous evaporation
of most of the petroleum ether, the residue was heated for five
hours on a steam bath in order to remove completely the petro-

1912']

Resenes of Resins and Oleokesins

133

leum ether and the volatile oil. Considerable diflSculty was ex-
perienced at the outset in these evaporations due to the tendency
of the material to " crawl " over the rim of the vessel. This
was entirely overcome by using a thin coating of vaseline on the
rim of the vessel.

The following results were obtained :

Table I. — Per Cent, of Resene in Resins

Species.

Local name.

Pinus Taeda

" Palustris

" Maritima

" Heterophylla

" Serotina

" Echinata

" Species unknown

" Sabiniana

" Laricio

Loblolly Pine
Longleaf Pine
Maritime Pine
Cuban or Slash Pine
Pond Pine
Old Field Pine

Digger Pine
Schwarzkiefer

FROM Different Species

Per cent.

Origin. resene.

North Carolina 4.10

Florida 5.67

France 7.37

Florida 7.38

Florida 7.65

North Carolina 8.71

Central America 8.94

California 9.66

Austria 14.05

In order to test the variation of the amount of resene in trees
of the same species two sets of determinations were carried out
on trees of different diameters. The results follow :

Table II. — Pinus Palustris (Longleaf Pine).

Table

Diameter

Per cent, resene

Tree No.

Cinches) .

In resin.

I

7.3

5.26

2

IS-O

5-95

3

21.0

9.68

4

130

7-45

S

8.7

5.67

6

9.0

5.45

7

13-5

6.22

III.— Pinus

Heterophylla (Cuban or Slash Pine

Diameter

Per cent, resene

Tree No.

(inches).

In resin

I

7.0

7.87

2

14.5

7.36

3

24-5

7.20

4

12.3

7-25

5

8.2

6.58

6

130

7.84

7

9.0

7.00

To determine possible variations in the per cent, of the resene
in different seasons of the same year two trees were selected,
one each, Pinus Palustris, tree No. 2, Table II, and Pinus Het
erophyllaj tree No. 2, Table III. Beginning in the early spring

134 Journal of the Mitchell Society [^December

the oleoresins were collected from these at regular periods of
four weeks until the close of the season in the fall. From li^e
resins prepared from these specimens the following results were
obtained :

Table IV.

Per cent, resene In resin from

Collection No.

Pinus Palustris.

Pinus Heterophylla.

I

5-31

7.36

2

5-44

7.67

3

5-95

7-23

4

6.02

8.17

5

6.09

7.38

6

6.53

7-43

7

5-24

7-77

It is scarcely probable that in the case of Pinus Palustris any
significance is to be attached to the gradual increase in the per
cent, of resene as the season advanced until the last collection.

Further determinations were made of the per cent, of resene
in specimens of oleoresin collected with great care in Florida
and promptly analyzed. The following results were obtained:

Table v.
Per cent

resene in oleoresin of

Pinus
Palustris
7.10
3.84
7.33

Y

Pinus
Heterophylla
6.83
6.76
6.96

Tree
Kb.

I
2

3

Finally, a specimen of " scrape " (Gum Thus) was obtained
from a Longleaf pine (Pinus Palustris). This scrape is the
hardened mass which gradually collects on the scarified surface
of the tree as a result of the crystallization of the resin acids of
the oleoresin. It receives its name from the fact that at the end
of the season it is scraped from the surface of the trees by means
of a sharp tool. It contains approximately one-half as much
spirits of turpentine as the ordinary oleoresin collected from the
receptacles. The resin was prepared from this scrape by distil-
lation with steam as above. On analysis it showed 3.14 per
cent, of resene.

In continuation of this work, there is now being carried out
in this laboratory an investigation of the composition of the
resene of Pinus Heterophylla.

University oe North Carolina,

THE VALUE OF COMMERCIAL STARCHES FOR
COTTON MILL PURPOSES.

By G. M. MacNidee.

Large quantities of starch are used annually by tlie cotton
mills in the processes of sizing and finishing. The yarn is pre-
pared for weaving by a process known as sizing, in which it is
treated with a solution of starch to give it certain properties
essential to good weaving. When the cloth comes from the
loom it is put through a process known as finishing to produce
a certain " finish " before it is ready for the market. It is essen-
tial to good weaving that the yarn be properly sized before going
to the loom and with many grades of cloth the finish produced
by the starch largely determines the market price of the goods.
It is therefore seen that starch plays a very important part in
the manufacture of cotton goods, and hence the purchase of the
kind of starch best adapted to the purpose in hand is a very
important matter.

The object of sizing is to make the yarn stiff er, increase the
strength and put it into proper condition for weaving. To ac-
complish this the size must penetrate the yarn to some extent
and also form a coating on the surface of the thread, which
prevents wear of the thread in the loom. The size is prepared
by boiling the starch (and other ingredients) with water in an
iron kettle known as the size-kettle. When the mixture has
been boiled for a sufficient length of time it is run out into the
size-box of the sizing machine and kept hot while the yarn is
passed through it. Two systems of sizing are in use : the short
chain system, or old system, in which the yarn is sized in hanks,
and the long chain or slasher system in which the yarn is sized
from the beam. The same results are obtained by both systems,
the slasher system being faster than the short chain system.
In both systems the yarn is dried as soon as it comes from the
starch solution.

The object of finishing is to increase the stiffness of the cloth
and produce a finish and feel on the cloth which are very import-

136 Journal of the Mitchell, Society {December

ant factors in marketing cotton goods. The finish mixture is
prepared in a manner similar to the size mixture and is applied
to the cloth while hot. When the cloth is dry it is calendered
to bring out the finish. The use of a starch solution alone in
these operations would make the goods too stiff and produce a
harshness which is not desirable. To modify this effect many-
softening agents are used, such as tallow, oils, soaps, glycerine,
etc. As finishing is the final operation it is very important that
it should be properly carried out and the best effect obtained
from the starch. If it is desired to increase the weight of the
goods this can best be done in the finishing process. For this
purpose the finishing mixture is made very thick, or where this
would produce too much stiffness in the cloth thin boiling
starches may be used to give the weight without undue stiffness.

The principal starches used in the textile industry are corn,
potato, cassava, sago, and to a small extent wheat and rice.
Wheat and rice starches are, however, more largely used as
laundry starches.

The value of starch for cotton mill purposes depends on its
property of swelling and forming a viscous solution when
treated with hot water. It is well known in practice that the
different starches produce different effects in sizing and finish-
ing. One kind of starch will penetrate the goods better than
another. This variation is due to a difference in the thickness
of the solutions formed by the different starches when boiled
with water, that is, one starch forms a more viscous solution
than another. The thickness or viscosity of the solution formed
by starch is the most important point to be known in determin-
ing the value of a starch for textile purposes, for on this de-
pends the penetration of the starch solution into the yarn or
cloth, and hence the stiffness which will be given to the goods
when sized or finished. As the viscosity of the starch solution
is such a valuable indication of the value of the starch it is very
important to have a method for determining the viscosity which
will give results comparable to actual practice. The following
method has been devised for this purpose:

Twelve grams of the starch are weighed into a 600 cc. beaker.

19121 The Value of Commekcial Starches 137

300 cc. distilled water added (thus making a 4 per cent, solu-
tion) and heated with constant stirring to the boiling point and
boiled for ten minutes ; 200 cc. of this solution are then poured
into the cup of a Scott viscosimeter, the temperature allowed to
become constant, usually 94° C, and 50 cc. run out into a grad-
uate, the time being accurately measured with a stop watch.
The number of seconds required to deliver 50 cc. of the solution
divided by the number of seconds required to deliver 50 cc. of
boiling water gives the viscosity.^

It will be noticed from this that the starch solution is pre-
pared by boiling with water as is done in sizing and finishing
and the viscosity is measured at very near the boiling point of
the solution, so that the figures obtained show the effect of boil-
ing on the different starches.

The viscosities of the principal commercial starches are
shown in the following table.

Table I. — Viscosities of Commerciai, Starches.
(i2 grams starch in 300 cc. water, boiled ten minutes.)
Starch Viscosity

Corn 3.05

Potato 14.31

Cassava 3.92

Sago 1.57

Wheat 1.25

Rice i.oo

From the above table it is seen that there is a wide variation
in the viscosities of the different starches and hence a vsdde
variation in their value for mill purposes. The viscosity of
potato starch is much higher than that of any other starch, but
there is also a considerable variation between the viscosities of
the other starches. The importance of the viscosity will be seen
more fully in the next section in showing the effect of boiling
on the viscosity of starch solutions. It has been found that
there is frequently considerable variation in the viscosities of
different lots of the same kind of starch. It would be very ad-
vantageous to the mills for each lot of the same kind of starch
to have a uniform viscosity. This would make it possible to

1 A detail description of this method was published in the Journal of Indus-
trial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. IV, No. 6, 1912.

138 Journal of the Mitchell Society [^December

obtain the same results in sizing and finishing without changing
tlie formula for each lot of starch.

In practice the starch solution is boiled from tbirty minutes
to one bour before being used. It is therefore very important
to know the effect produced by boiling on the viscosity of the
starch solution. This is shown in the following table.

Table II. — Showing the Effect of Boiling on the Viscosities of

Commercial Starches.

(i2 grams starch in 300 cc. water.)

Starch Minutes Boiled Viscosity

Corn at boil 2.15

" 10 2.73

" 20 4.26

" 30 7-00

Potato at boil 16.37

" 5 19.51

" 10 14.31

" 30 6.33

Cassava at boil 9.93

" 5 4.53

" 10 3.88

" 20 3.91

" 30 417

Sago at boil 1.88

" 5 1.62

" 10 I.S7

" 30 1.66

Wheat at boil 1.20

" 5 1.22

" 10 1.26

" 20 1.24

" 30 1.33

Rice at boil i.oo

" 10 i.oo

" 30 1.08

From tbe above table it will be seen that the viscosity of
corn starch increases uniformly with the length of time of
boiling. This increase is about what would be expected with
the concentration of the solution when there is no change in
the starch. This is a very valuable property of corn starch as
compared with other starches and gives corn starch a much
wider application in the textile industry than any other starch.
The value of this property will be seen more clearly by com-
parison with potato starch.

Potato starch reaches its maximum viscosity after being
boiled five minutes. From this point the viscosity decreases

1912'] The Value of Commebcial Starches 139

rapidly with the increase in time of boiling, the concentra-
tion of the solution apparently having no effect on the viscosity.
After boiling ten minutes potato starch has a viscosity slightly
more than five times as great as corn starch, while after boiling
thirty minutes the viscosity of potato starch is less than that
of corn starch which has been boiled the same length of time.
This property of potato starch of liquefying on boiling is a
very important point to be considered in using this starch. In
sizing the starch is boiled from thirty minutes to one hour be-
fore being used, hence, as will be seen from the table, a size
mixture made of potato starch will have a viscosity less than that
of a similar size made of corn starch at the time it is ready to
be applied to the yarn. In other words, the potato starch size
will not be as valuable for sizing as the corn starch size, but
it will cost approximately twice as much as the size made from
corn starch.

Cassava starch attains its maximum viscosity at the boiling
point. The solution apparently has a higher viscosity shortly
after complete gelatinization takes place, but no measurements
were made of this as the starch is not used until it has been
boiled. After reaching the boiling point the viscosity decreases!
uniformly with the length of time of boiling. After boiling
thirty minutes there is an increase in the viscosity over that of
the solution boiled twenty minutes. This increase is probably
due to increase in concentration. As will be seen from the
table, cassava starch behaves in a manner very similar to potato
starch as regards liquefaction of the solution, but not to the
same extent. Cassava starch therefore has a much broader
application in sizing and finishing than potato starch.

Sago starch has a much lower viscosity than any of the
starches so far considered. Like cassava starch it apparently
has a higher viscosity at the time of complete gelatinization,
but no measurements were made of this. The viscosity is high-
est at the boiling point and decreases uniformly on boiling,
though not to the same extent as the other starches. After boil-
ing thirty minutes there is a slight increase in viscosity due
to the concentration of the solution. While having a consider-

140 Journal of the Mitchell Society \_Decemher

able lower viscosity sago starcli is quite similar to cassava
starch as regards the effect of boiling on the solution.

Wheat starch shows a gradual increase in viscosity with the
time of boiling, similar to corn starch, though the total increase
is small, the viscosity of the thirty minute determination being
only slightly higher than the determination made at the boiling
point.

Rice starch has the same viscosity as water when measured
under these conditions. At the end of thirty minutes boiling
it shows only a very slight increase in viscosity.

The marked differences in the effect of boiling on the vis-
cosities of the different starches is due to the fact that some
starches form soluble starch products more readily than others.
The data given in the preceding table shows very plainly the
importance of the viscosity in determining the value of a starch
for mill purposes.

SPECIAL OE TREATED STARCHES.

A number of special starches are now used which have been
treated so as to make them " thin boiling starches," that is,
when boiled the solution has a lower viscosity than the natural
starches. These usually consist of corn starch which has been
treated in some way to reduce the viscosity. The viscosities of
several such starches are shown in the following table:

Table III. — Viscosities oe Special or Treated Starches.''
(i2 grams starch in 300 cc. water, boiled ten minutes.)
Starch Viscosity

Eagle Finishing 1.15

N Starch alkaline 2.13

Famous N 1.17

Erkenbrecher's Modified 1. 13

T. B. Crystal No. 75 i.ii

T. B. Crystal No. 90 1.04

Special Warp Sizing 3.48

There are quite a number of processes for treating starches
to reduce the viscosity or make them thin boiling starches. In
the table above the Eagle Finishing Starch is a treated starch

^ The samples of treated starches were very kindly furnished the author by
the Com Products Refining Co., of New York.

1912^ The Value of Commercial Starches 141

containing a small amount of borax and is slightly alkaline.
The viscosity of the alkaline N starch has been reduced by the
addition of a small amount of alkali. The other starches given
in the table have been treated to reduce the viscosity and are
neutral in reaction. The effect of several reagents on the vis-
cosity of starches has been shown in a previous paper.^

It will be seen from this table that the viscosities of the
treated starches cover quite a wide range, from a viscosity
slightly less than that of corn starch to a viscosity only slightly
higher than water. The Special Warp Sizing Starch is a pul-
verized corn starch. It is frequently claimed that pulverized
starch makes a smoother size mixture than the ordinary gran-
ular starch. These treated starches, on account of having lower
viscosities than untreated starches, are of value in sizing and
finishing to obtain more penetration of the starch into the yarn
or cloth and to increase the amount of starch which is put into
the goods. This may be accomplished by using the treated
starch in place of the untreated and increasing the amount used
or by mixing the treated starch with the untreated starch in
such proportion as to secure the desired results. For instance,
in sizing or finishing if the mixture contains 50 lbs. of corn
starch to 100 gallons of water and it is desired to increase the
amount of starch put into the goods nearly double this amount
of a thin boiling starch could be used which has a viscosity of
half of that of corn starch and still obtain a size mixture with
the same thickness or viscosity as with the 50 lbs. of corn starch.
In other words nearly twice as much starch would be put into
the yarn, thereby increasing the weight of the yarn, by using
the thin boiling starch than by using the untreated corn starch.
This is shown in the following formulae for sizing No. 26 yarns
which are taken from actual practice:

100 gallons water
50 lbs. corn starch.

100 gallons water
95 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch.

' Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. IV, No. 6, 1912.

142 Journal of the Mitchell Society ^December

It will be noted from the table of viscosities that Eagle Fin-
ishing Starch has a viscosity slightly less than half of that of
untreated corn starch and hence when this starch is used the
amount can be nearly doubled without effecting the penetration.

By comparing the following formula for sizing No. 26 yarns
with the first formula given it will be seen how the amount of
starch may be increased and at the same time obtain greater
penetration and more weight than with untreated corn starch.

100 gallons water
80 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch.

The following formula for sizing No. 26 yarns shows the
use of another treated starch:
100 gallons water

65 lbs. Alkaline N Starch.

It will be noted from the table of viscosities that this starch
has a viscosity of 2.13 or slightly lower than corn starch and
hence a larger amount of it can be used.

In making investigations on the value of the different com-
mercial starches for cotton mill purposes the author has re-
ceived very valuable assistance from many of the cotton mills in
the State. A large number of mills have very kindly sent in
reports showing the kind of starch which they use and the
method of preparing the starch for sizing and finishing. Below
are given a number of typical formulae for sizing by the long
chain or slasher system which are in actual use by the mills.
For convenience of comparison the formulae have been calcu-
lated to a basis of 100 gallons of water. As there is such a great
variety of softening agents in general use by the mills the
amount of softener has not been included in the formulae. The
average amount of softener used in sizing is approximately 15
lbs. of tallow, or its equivalent, to 100 lbs. of starch or 1.5 lbs.
to each 10 lbs. of starch. The amount used varies, of course,
with the yarn numbers and the method of sizing.

For yarn Nos. 14 s and 20 s.
100 gallons water

66 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch.

19121 The Vai.ue of Commekcial Staeches 143

For yarn Nos. 14 s and 22 s.
100 gallons water
71 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch.

These formulEe are used on practically the same yarn num-
bers. The first one, using 66 lbs. of starch will give greater pen-
etration than the second, but the second formula will give more
weight to the yarn.

For yarn No. 16.

100 gallons of water
63 lbs. corn starch.

In this formula, using an untreated starch, a smaller quantity
of starch is used than in the other formulae where treated
starch is used.

For yarn No. 21.

100 gallons of water
62 lbs. corn starch.

For yarn No. 23.

100 gallons of water
60 lbs. corn starch.

For yarn No. 26.

100 gallons of water
50 lbs. corn starch.

100 gallons of water
95 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch.

100 gallons of water
80 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch.

100 gallons of water
65 lbs. Alkaline N Starch.

These formulae for 26 s show how different starches may be
used to increase the penetration and vary the amount of starch
put into the yarn, thereby increasing the weight of the yarn.

144 Journal of the Mitchell Society \^December

For yarn Nos. 28 s and 36 s.
100 gallons water
65 lbs. Potato starch.

For yarn l^o. 281/2.

100 gallons water
• 80 lbs. Famous N Starch.

For yam 'No. 30.

100 gallons water
65 lbs. Famous N Starch.

100 gallons water
65 lbs. corn starch.

These formulae for 30 s show how more penetration and
hence more weight may be obtained by using a thin boiling
starch in place of an untreated starch.

For yarn No. 36.

100 gallons water

. 48 lbs. potato starch.

For yarn No. 40.

100 gallons water
65 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch.

100 gallons water
70 lbs. potato starch.

In comparing the amounts of starch used in the different
formulae the viscosity of the different starches should be kept
in mind as it will be noted that when large amounts of starch
are used the treated or thin boiling starches are used in place
of the untreated starch which has a higher viscosity.

In sizing by the short chain system more starch is required
and a thicker solution is used than in sizing by the long chain
or slasher system. This is due to the fact that the yarn is not
stretched as much in short chain sizing as it is on the slashing
machine and hence the starch solution penetrates the yarn more
readily. For example, a size mixture composed of 120 gallons

1912] The Value of Commercial Staeches 145

of water, 65 lbs. starch and 8 lbs. of tallow will size about 720
lbs. of No. 141/^ yarn by the short chain system, w^hile by the
slasher system the same amount of size will be sufficient for
about 950 lbs. of the same yarn.

In preparing the starch for use it is very important that the
size be thoroughly boiled before being used. In the reports
which the author has received from the cotton mills it is always
recommended to boil the size mixture from thirty minutes to
one hour before using. From this it is safe to say that the size
mixture should be boiled for not less than forty-five minutes
before being used.

From the data which has been presented in this article it is
seen that the viscosity of the starch solution is the important
point to be considered in determining the value of a starch for
textile purposes. There is another property of starch which
is of value in the textile industry which is not shown by the
viscosity, that is the finish which is imparted to the goods by
the starch. Potato and cassava starch are said to produce a
smooth finish, while corn and rice starch are said to produce a
harsh finish. While this property may be of value in sizing
and finishing some grades of goods, still no matter which one
of the starches is used some softening agent must be used with
it to modify the effect of the starch and it is therefore best in
the majority of cases to use a cheap starch and control the finish
by the use of softeners than to control the finish by varying
the kind of starch used.

Sufficient data has been given to show the value of the differ-
ent starches for textile purposes. There is a wide variation in
the viscosity of the different starches and in the effect of boil-
ing on the viscosities and as this is such an important factor
in sizing and finishing it must be taken into consideration in
selecting the starch to be used in cotton mills. As starch plays
such an important part in the manufacture of cotton goods
it is very important for the manufacturer to use the kind of
starch which will produce the desired results most economically.

Feed and Microchemical Laboratory,

N. C. Department of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.

NOTE ON THE TKANSFORMATION OF AMMONIUM
CYANATE INTO UREA.*

Chattaway^ says, " The course of the reaction which takes
place when ammonium cyanate is transformed into carbamide
has never been satisfactorily explained. Up to a few years
ago it was universally regarded as a peculiar case of isomeric
change and no consideration was given to the process by which
the conversion was effected." He then states that various spe-
cified reactions of carbamide, cyanic acid, isocyanic acid and
their esters may be simply explained " by regarding them as
instances of the well known tendency of the carbonyl group to
add groups such as R2NH and ROH, followed by a subsequent
atomic rearrangement involving only the transference of a hy-
drogen atom from an oxygen atom to a nitrogen atom connected
with it through the doubly linked carbon atom, thus:

OH
N:C:0 -^ -N :C< -> -NHCON:

N:

The conversion of ammonium cyanate into carbamide should
therefore be formulated as follows :"

OH
NH4 -N :CO?^H N :C :0+NH3^H N :C< ?^H.N CO -NH..

NHa

The three stages, then, in the transformation are (1) the break-
ing up of ammonium cyanate into cyanic acid and ammonia,
{2) the formation of an addition compound, and (3) a re-
arrangement of this compound.

A simpler explanation eliminates this addition compound and
its rearrangement. I find in my note book on the lectures in
Organic Chemistry by Professor H. B. Hill at Harvard Univer-
sity in 1896, this statement: Ammonium cyanate breaks up
with heat into HNCO and NH3 and then the NH3 adds itself

as follows:

H.N:C:0

^ 1^ =H2N-CO-NH2
H NH2

* Reprinted from The Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXIV,
No. 9, September, 1912.

1912 Ammonium Cyanate into Urea 147

I have used this explanation in my own lectures since that time.
Essentially the same explanation is given by Willstatter in his
lectures in Ziirich. By introducing the idea of partial valence
the mechanism is more readily conceived. The reaction is for-
mulated thus:

H— N++C=0 H— N— C-0

': ■: II

H — NHi H NH2

The partial valences of the nitrogen and carbon atoms are rep-
resented by a number of very short lines, not dots, which should
be reserved for ordinary valences. (The practise of writers in
this matter is not uniform, but uniformity would be very desir-
able.) When the partial valences come into play in the pres-
ence of H.NH2, one of the double bonds between nitrogen and
carbon is broken, as represented in lecture practise by a double
stroke across the bond and the partial valences resolve them-
selves into ordinary valences.

Alvin S. Wheeler.

University of North Carolina.

NEW THERMOMETERS FOR MELTING POINT
DETERMINATION.*

Uniformity in practise in making melting point determina-
tions would be very desirable, for even to-day there are too many
cases where different observers disagree. The failure to agree
is not always due to the quality of the material if we may have
confidence in the analytical data given. Many forms of appara-
tus are in use as well as various kinds of thermometers. Other
factors also enter in. The practise of reporting the corrected
reading is a step in the right direction and its extension should
be constantly urged.

In order to avoid the necessity of making corrections for the
exposure of the mercury column I have devised a thermometer
with a short scale, so that it may be completely immersed in
the bath. The method of construction may be readily seen from
the accompanying sketch. Owing to the compact form of the
scale it was necessary to construct a set of seven thermometers,
each with a milk glass scale of 50*^ with divisions in degrees.
The length of the scale is 35 mm. The thermometer jacket is
lengthened so that the total length is 20 cm. This permits of its
suspension by means of a cork as in the Thiele apparatus which
is a particularly good form to be used with this thermometer.
The mercury bulb is small and compact and above it is a con-
striction to enable one to attach the capillary tube if that is
desired. For the protection of the manufacture of the thermom-
eters patent No. 507,320 has been entered in the German Patent
Office. The thermometers may be obtained from C. Richter, 30
Lehrterstrasse, Berlin, N. W. 5.

Alvin S. Wheeler.

University of North Carolina.

ft

H

* Reprinted from The Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXIV,
No. 9, September, 1912.

VOL. XXVIII FEBRUARY, 1913 No. 4

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C, U. S. A.

TO BE KNTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTEa

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

E. V. HOWELL, President
P. H. DAGGETT, Vice-President
J. M. BELL, Recording Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

Editors of the Journal:

W. C. COKER

J. M. BELL, - A. H. PATTERSON

CONTENTS

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific So-
ciety FKOM Maech^ 1909, to Dec.^ 1912 149

New Occuerences of Monazii-e in Noeth Caeolina —

Joseph Hyde Pratt 153

Natueal Histoey Notes on Some Beatjfoet^ E". C,

Fishes — E. W. Oudger. 157

Eecent Views on the Chemistry of Diet — Isaac F,

Harris 173

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly. Price
$2.00 per year; Single numbers SO cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
University of North Garolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitcheil Scientific Society

VOLUME XXVIII FEBRUARY, 1913 No. 4

L

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEN- bc
TIFIC SOCIETY FKOM MARCH, 1909, TO DEC, 1912. C

182nd Meeting— March 9, 1909.

D. H. DoLLEY. The Pathological Cytology of Surgical
Shock. I. Preliminary Communication : The Alterations Oc-
curring in the Purkinge Cells of the Cerebellum.

A. H. Patterson. Exhibit of Some New Vacuum Tubes
Recently Received by the Physics Department.

183rd Meeting— April 12, 1909.

Archibald Henderson. The Linear Classification of the
Cubic Surface.

Alvin S. Wheeler. Trichlorethylidenediphenamine Com-
pounds.

Business Meeting — September 14, 1909.

Election of Officers:

President — Prof. A. H. Patterson.
Vice-President — Dr. J. E. Mills.
Corresponding Secretary — Dr. F. P. Venable.
Recording Secretary — Dr. A. S. Wheeler.
Editorial Committee — Dr. W. C. Coker, Chairman, Dr.
H. V. Wilson, Dr. A. Henderson.

184th Meeting— October 20, 1909.

W. C. Coker. The Yosemite Valley and the Big Trees. Il-
lustrated.

D. H. DoLLEY. The Anatomical Reaction of Nerve Cells in
Normal and Excessive Muscular Exertion.

149

150 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

185th Meeting— November 9, 1909.

H. V. Wilson. The Structure and Regeneration of the Skin
in Sponges.

A. S. Wheeler. A K'ew Study of Oceanic Salts.

A. H. Patterson. The Personal Equation in Judgment of
Length, Mass and Time.

186th Meeting— December 14, 1909.

J. E. Latta. l^otes on the Static Transformer.
W. B. MacN'ider. The Part Played by the Kidney Cells in
Determining the Quantity of Urine.

187th Meeting— February 8, 1910.

Wm. Cain. The Pressure of Coal in Bins (by title).
A. H. Patterson. The Comets of 1910. Illustrated.

188th Meeting— March 8, 1910.

Wm. Cain. The Influence of Cohesion in the Pressure of
Earth against Walls.

J. H. Pratt. The Conservation and Utilization of our Nat-
ural Resources.

189th Meeting— April 12, 1910.

Archibald Henderson. Some Configurations on the Cubic
Surface.

J. S. Holmes. A Sketch of the Forestry Work of the Several
Geological Surveys of N^orth Carolina.

Business Meeting — October 17, 1910

Election of Officers:

President— Prof. M. H. Stacy.
Vice-President — Prof. P. H. Daggett.
Corresponding Secretary — Dr. F. P. Venable.
Recording Secretary — Dr. R. A. Hall.
Editorial Committee — Dr. W. C. Coker, Chairman, Dr. J.
M. Bell, Prof. A. H. Patterson.

1913'] Proceedings of Elisiia Mitchell Society 151

190th Meeting— November 1, 1910.
F. P. Venable. The Meteor-Crater of Arizona.
J. M. Bell. Indirect Methods of Chemical Analysis.

191st Meeting — December, 1910.

H. V. Wilson. Development of Sponges from Isolated Cells.
A. H. Patterson. Revision of the Calendar.

192nd Meeting— February 14, 1911.

W. C. Coker. Some Peculiar Forms of Yeast.
W. B. MacNider. Kidney Regeneration.

193rd Meeting— March 21, 1911.
E. V. Howell. Opium.

194th Meeting— April, 1911

Wm. Cain. Pressures on Tunnel Linings.

Business Meeting — October, 1911.

Election of Officers :

President— Dr. W. B. MacNider.
Vice-President — Dr. A. Henderson.
Corresponding Secretary — Dr. F. P. Venable.
• Recording Secretary — Dr. R. A. Hall.

Editorial Committee — Dr. W. C. Coker, Chairman, Dr. J.
M. Bell, Prof. A. H. Patterson.

195th Meeting— November 14, 1911.

A. S. Wheeler. The Walden Inversion.

T. F. HiCKERsoN. The Crest-of-the-Blue-Ridge Highway.

196th Meeting— December 12, 1911.
W. C. Coker. The Rothamsted Experiment Station.
C. H. Herty. Chemical Analyses of Chapel Hill Waters.

197th Meeting— February 13, 1912.

Collier Cobb. The Meaning of the Fall Line in the At-
lantic and Gulf Coastal Plain.

152 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

J. M. Bell. Solubility Studies.

A. Henderson. Cubic Surfaces, A Report.

198th Meeting— March 12, 1912.

A. H. Patterson. The Acoustics of Memorial Hall.
A. T. Bendrat. a Scientific Expedition to Venezuela.

199th Meeting— April 9, 1912.

W. B. MacE'ider. The Relation of the Epithelial Changes
of the Kidney to the Total Output of Urine.
R. A. Hall. Ammonium Citrate Solutions.

Business Meeting — September 27, 1912.

Election of Officers:

President— Prof. E. V. Howell.
Vice-President — Prof. P. H. Daggett.
Corresponding Secretary — Dr. E. P. Venable.
Recording Secretary — Dr. J. M. Bell.
Editorial Committee — Dr. W. C. Coker, Chairman, Prof.
A. H. Patterson, Dr. J. M. Bell.

200th Meeting— October 15, 1912.
C. H. Herty. Chemical Control of Industrial Plants.
W. C. Coker. The Water Molds of Chapel Hill.

201st Meeting — November 12, 1912
W. H. Brown. The Physiological Action of Haematin. Il-
lustrated.

J. S. Holmes. Forestry for Eastern North Carolina Lum-
bermen.

202nd Meeting— December 10, 1912.

T. F. HiCKERSON. Notes on the Construction of the Crest-
of-the-Blue-Ridge Highway. Illustrated.

Collier Cobb. Zonation in the Chapel Hill Stock.

James M. Bell,
Recording Secretary.

NEW OCCURKEXCES OF MOKAZITE IN NORTH
CAROLINA

By Joseph Hyde Pratt

In 1897 there was forwarded to the office of the North Car-
olina Geological Survey a package containing a sample of min-
eral for identification. No letter accompanied this package
and the only clue to the locality from which the mineral came
was the postmark, which was Mars Hill. The mineral was
turned over to the writer for examination and was found to
be monazite. There were a number of fairly well developed
crystals of unusual size ; but the majority of the pieces of mona-
zite did not show any crystal f acies but were pseudo-crystalline,
due to parting parallel to c and m. An attempt was made to
locate the sender of the specimens without success and although
many inquiries were made in and around Mars Hill, and the
vicinity had been visited a number of times, no clue to the oc-
currence of this monazite was obtained until in the fall of
1908 when another specimen of monazite was seen by the writer
while travelling in Madison County. A systematic search was
then begun for the mineral with the result that the occurrence
was definitely located.

References have been made to the occurrence of monazite at
Mars Hill, Madison County, by F. A. Genth,* who states that
monazite occurs in "large cleavable masses sometimes from 3 to
4 inches across and of a yellowish brown color from Mars Hill,
Madison County." He does not, however, give any further
statement regarding locality. In Dana's Mineralogyf it is
stated that monazite occurs "in considerable quantities in Madi-
son County, North Carolina, yielding angular fragments due
to parting." Judging from these brief notices of monazite in
Madison County, it is very probable that the specimens of mona-
zite found at that time were picked up on top of the ground by
some of the farmers in the vicinity of Mars Hill and no record
was kept as to where they were actually obtained.

* Bull. 74 U. S. Geological Survey, 1891, p. 77.
t 6th ed., 1892, p. 752.

153

154 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Judging from the occurrence of monazite in the South Moun-
tain region of ISTorth Carolina where it was known to occur in
the gneissic rocks and especially in those portions that have been
pegmatized, instructions were given to the men assisting in lo-
cating the monazite of Madison County to look for it in the
gneissic or granitic rocks that were more or less pegmatized. The
occurrence of this monazite was finally located on a hill to the
west of Whiteoak Creek, a branch of Ivy River approximately 3
miles southwest of Mars Hill and 6 miles nearly due east of
Marshall, on a tract of land owned by Mr. IST. P. M. Corn.

The country rocks of this section are Carolina gneiss and
Cranberry granite named and described by Mr. Arthur Keith.*
The Carolina gneiss is of Archean age and consists chiefly of
mica gneiss and mica schist but includes other gneisses, gran-
ites and diorites with small lenses of marble. The origin of this
Carolina gneiss is uncertain, but it is possible that most of the
mass was once a granite and that it has been metamorphosed
into its present condition. In this particular vicinity this Caro-
lina gneiss occurs as outliers from the main formation and is
not inter-banded with the Cranberry granite. Immediately to
the east there is a large mass of Roan gneiss and this is also
observed further to the west. The Cranberry granite as it oc-
curs in this vicinity is also in the form of outliers or apophyses
from the main mass lying to the north and west. As described
by Mr. Keith, this granite is an igneous rock composed of
quartz and orthoclase and plagioclase feldspar with biotite,
muscovite and, in places, hornblende as additional minerals.
There are a number of accessory minerals as magnetite, ilmen-
ite, garnet and eijidote. This granite occasionally contains
pegmatite areas and, on the Whiteoak Creek, a great deal of
the gneiss and granite was pegmatized.

There are no extensive areas of rocks outcropping on this
hillside. Occasionally small boulders of the partially decom-
posed granite were observed containing more or less epidote and
ilmenite forming a sort of a ledge running around the hill about
a third of the way to the top. About 100 feet up the hillside a

* U. S. Geological Survey, Asheville Folio, No. IIG, 1904, pp. 2 and 3.

1913'] MON^VZITE IN ISTORTH CAROLINA 155

shaft has been sunk to a depth of 45 feet. The rocks were de-
composed throughout this distance so that no blasting whatever
was necessary. On account of the excessive decomposition of
the rocks, it was difficult to determine what the rocks at this
particular point were. They had the appearance, however, of
being decomposed Cranberry granite. The section exposed by
the shaft showed the rocks to be more or less pegmatized and to
carry monazite the whole depth of the shaft. The monazite
seemed to occur in the pegmatized band of the rock, which, in
the shaft as exposed, had a width of 21/0 to 4 feet.

The monazite, which is of a clove brown color, was found in
fragments of rough crystals varying from pieces the size of a
pea up to a large rough crystal that weighed almost exactly 60
pounds. 'No attempt was made at this time to determine the
percentage of monazite that the rock would carry. One or two
pans full of the monazite-bearing portion of the rock were taken
out, which gave nearly a pound of monazite.

As stated above, the monazite is in the form of irregular
fragments, rouch crystals and cleavable masses. One of the
best crystals observed was a part of a mass that weighed G^/o
pounds, which was made up of crystals in parallel position with
some of the facies very perfectly developed. Another crystal,
which was well terminated, weighed 12 ounces. It was 2%
inches long in the direction of the b axis; IY2 inches in the di-
rection of the a axis and 21/^ inches long in the direction of the
c axis. The prismatic facies of the a pinacoid were well de-
veloped as was also the unit pyramid lu. The lower end of the
crystal showed no terminations. The facies observed on these
crystals were identified by means of the contact goniometer and
were as follows: a (100)'; m (Oil) ; iv (101) v (T 11).

The basal plane c was not observed on any of the crystals but
was observed as one of the parting or cleavage planes. Parting
planes were also very prominently developed parallel to m.

The masses of the monazite were very pure and one analysis
to determine the percentage of monazite in the masses shows it
to contain 99.5 per cent, monazite. ISTo chemical analyses have
been made of the mineral beyond the determination of thoria.

156 JouKNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SociETY \_Fehruary

This determination, which was made in the laboratory of the
Welsbach Light Company, showed this monazite to contain 5.06
per cent, thoria, which is equal to the percentage of thoria in
the best commercial monazite found in the South Mountain
region.

The size of the crystals of monazite found in this deposit,
which are perhaps the largest on record, make this discovery a
most interesting one.
Chapel Hill, N. C.

NATUKAL HISTORY NOTES ON SOME BEAUFORT,
N. C, FISHES, 1910-11.

No. III. Fishes New or Little Known on the Coast of North Carolina.
Collected by Mr. Russell J. Coles*

By E. W. Gudgek

The ichthyological events of the years 1910 and 1911 in the
Beaufort region were the expeditions of Mr. Russell J. Coles,
of Danville, Va., to Cape Lookout. As previously stated (Gud-
ger, 1912) Mr. Coles has been fishing in the vs^aters of Beaufort
and surrounding parts for many years. In July, 1909, seeking
especially for rare forms, he fished extensively and effectively
at the Cape, so efl:'ectively (he added Narcine brasiliensis to our
fauna) that he came back in 1910 as volunteer collector of
fishes for the American Museum of Natural History. With a
larger force of men and a fuller equipment of boats, nets, and
other apparatus, he was extraordinarily successful, taking dur-
ing the season (1910) a total of 77 species, of which 5 were new
and a larger number but sparingly recorded in the literature as
found on our coast. In 1911, Mr. Coles sought not to take a
large number of species, but rather to collect new forms or those
but little known to the coast of North Carolina. As to the
former, he was successful in adding 8 new species, of the latter
fishes he took quite a number. In all his additions to our fauna
number no fewer than 14.

A brief statement of the data collected by Mr. Coles will now
be given. It is in part taken from his paper published by the
American Museum (1910), but mainly it was communicated
by him to the writer personally. Some of these data have al-
ready been given in the preceding papers of this series (Gud-
ger, 1912, 1912a), in connection with the writer's o^vn obser-
vations. The fishes named, which were taken in 1910, were
presented to the American Museum of Natural History, while

* Parts I and II of this series, bearing sub-titles "Elasmobranchii — with
Special Reference to Utero-gestation" and "Teleostomi" respectively, have been
published in the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, Vol. 25,
1912. See under literature cited at the end of this article.

157

158 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

the collection of 1911 was divided between tliat institution and
the United States National Museum. The identifications are
bj Messrs. John T. Nichols and Barton A. Bean, curators of
fishes in these two great museums.

SPECIES NEW TO NORTH CAROLINA.

Carcharhinus acronotus (Poey).

Sharp-backed Shark.

About the middle of Julj, 1911, Coles took in the bight of
Cape Lookout a small greenish shark about 3 feet long. The
identification of this fish being in doubt, it was referred to that
veteran student of the Elasmobranchs. Dr. Samuel Garman,
who pronounced it to be Carcharhinus acronotus, heretofore
only described from Havana by Poey. Not only is it new to
North Carolina waters but so far as the writer knows to the
coast of the United States.

Carcharhinus limbatus (Muller and Henle).

Caconetta.

In July, 1910, Coles collected at the Cape a shark which was
afterwards identified as Carcharhinus limhatus. This is the
first reported capture of this fish in our waters and, so far as the
writer knows, the second for the Atlantic coast — according to
Jordan and Evermann (1896) a single specimen having been
taken at Woods Hole in the early '80s.

Whether the unknown shark referred to on page 141 of the
first paper of this series (Gudger 1912) is identical with either
of the above fishes cannot of course be said. If it should be,
then the writer by a faulty diagnosis lost the opportunity to
add it to the list of North Carolina fishes. But, as stated pre-
viously, sharks are so variable that the classification was not
pushed farther and the fish was thrown aside as a variation.

Narcine brasiliensis (Olfers).

Numb-fish.

During his trip to Cape Lookout, in 1909, Mr. Coles,

added to our fish fauna by collecting and bringing to the

laboratory of the United States Bureau of Fisheries (sub-

1913] Some Beaufort, N. C, Fishes 159

sequent to the writer's departure therefrom) two fine speci-
mens of Narcine hrasiliensis, variety corallina, a fish hitherto
unknown in our waters. Director H. D. Aller has already
called attention to this interesting find (1910), but it seems not
out of place here to make mention of this fact and to note cer-
tain details of the structure of this fish.

When examined by the present writer, these specimens had
been in formalin in a copper tank for 11 months, but were in
perfect condition save that they had been dyed a beautiful green
by the copper salts. The male was 11 inches long over all,
5^^ inches to the end of the ventrals, and the greatest width of
the disk was 61/^ inches. The claspers were short, barely pro-
jecting beyond the ventrals, but the grooves for the transmis-
sion of the milt were quite plain. The female was 13^ inches
long, half of that distance being the length of the tail clear of
the ventrals. The greatest width was 7% inches, and the widths
(inside measurements) between spiracles and eyes were 15-16
of an inch and 1 7-16 inches respectively. In both, the tails
were fringed with side fins, like the bilge keels of a vessel, from
the middle of the anterior dorsal to well beyond the base of the
caudal. The spiracles were placed immediately behind the
eyes. The jaws were set on a short peduncle in the mouth and
were surrounded by a fossa. This indicates that they are
probably protrusible. Through the kindness of Director Aller,
both specimens were examined for reproductive organs. Un-
fortunately, however, these were either immature or so out of
season that nothing could be made out. HoAvever, the fish is
known to be viviparous. Concerning this attention is called to
Bean and Weed's interesting paper (1911).

In July, 1910, Coles (1910) captured in the same locality
and preserved for the American Museum of ]S[atural History
11 specimens of these interesting animals, while at least a
dozen more were taken by the fishermen. These were all caught
within one week, and after that time none could be found.
Coles reports that they bury themselves up to the eyes in sand,
and that he saw barefoot fishermen knocked down by stepping
on them while wading about in the shallow water.

160 Journal of the Mitchell, Society [^February

In 1911, Coles took only 5 of these interesting rays. One he
gave to the writer, three were presented to the U. S. ISTational
Museum, and one sent to the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle at
Paris. These rays were caught on precisely the same days as
those in 1909 and 1910, viz., from June 29 to July 4, after
which none were taken in any of these three years either by Mr.
Coles or by the fishermen.

The specimen presented to the writer was 7^ inches wide,
7 inches long, 914 to end of ventrals, and 13% over all. The
width between its eyes was 1% inches and the width of its
mouth % inch. The electric organs were each 3% inches long
by 2% wide. The reproductive organs were immature or at
any rate non-functional. The stomach and intestine were filled
with connnon red annelid worms. The other structures were
as in those previously described.

This is the first time that this interesting fish has been taken
in the waters of ISTorth Carolina. Jordan and Evermann
(1896) say of it (vol. I, p. 78) : ''West Indies and Brazil, oc-
casionally northward to Key West and Pensacola."

Urolophus jamaicensis (Cuvier).

In addition to Narcine hj^asiliensiSj Coles has added two other
new rays to our IN^orth Carolina fauna. The first of these is
Urolophus jamaicensis, a West Indian form of which Jordan
and Evermann (1896) say . . . "once (perhaps erron-
eously) recorded from 'New Jersey." Coles' specimen, measur-
ing about 3 1/2 inches across the disk, was taken at Cape Look-
out the last week in June, 1911. It was presented to the Amer-
ican Museum of ISTatural History.

Dasyatis hastata (De Kay).

Sting Ray.

The other new ray referred to is Dasyatis hastata, a female
specimen of which weighing 64 pounds Coles took at the Caj)e
in July, 1910. While being killed, she gave birth to five young
about 6 inches wide and 15 long (including tail). In the ova-
ries were found a number of small eggs. With this discovery

1913] Some Beaufort, K C, Fishes 161

this raj falls into line with all other Beaufort forms known to
the writer in being viviparous.

In July, 1908, the writer took at the Narrows of Newport
River a brown ray whose length was 39 inches from the tip of
nose to root of tail, the total length ( the tail had plainly suffered
amputation near the tip) 75 inches. Because of the presence
of long horny prickles on the hinder part of the median line of
the body and on the base of the tail, and of the structure and
length of the tail, this ray was provisionally identified as
Dasyatis sahina. This identification needs confirmation. The
ray may have been Dasyatis hastata as above. 'No other speci-
men has since been seen.

Mobula olfersi (Miiller & Henle).

Small Devil-Fish.

Of all Coles' captures, however, none has aroused so much in-
terest as that of the Mantid ray, Mohula olfersi. This all at first
mistook for Manta birostris. Coles brought to the laboratory,
on the last day of the writer's stay at Beaufort in 1910, a head
preserved in formalin. It was examined hastily and pronounced
Manta hirostris. So said all the other students of fishes to
whom it was submitted. Mr. Coles, however, contended all
the time that it was not Manta. At the meeting of the Ameri-
can Fisheries Society in New York, Sept. 27-29, 1910, 2 speci-
mens, a male and a female, now in the American Museum, were
submitted to the inspection of that N^estor among ichthyologists.
Dr. Theodore Gill, who at once unhesitatingly said that they
were not Manta hirostris, and suggested that they were Mohula
olfersi as first described by Miiller and Henle. This diagnosis
was confirmed and they were so named in Coles' paper. This
is indeed a great find. Jordan and Evermann say of the iden-
tical or closely related form, Aodon liypostomus, "This species,
described from Jamica, is very imperfectly known, and may be
the same as Aodon olfersi (M. & H.), afterwards described
from Brazil." Coles' specimens are the first taken in ISTorth
American waters.

The teeth of Mohula:^ are very small and somewhat shark-like

* The teeth of Coles' specimens have been studied and reported on by Pelle-
grin (1912). See literature cited.

162 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

and utterly negative the commonly accepted idea that the devil-
fishes, as the Mantid rays are commonly called, live on shell-
fish. Coles watched them fishing in small schools for minnows,
using their cephalic fins to form funnels for scooping the min-
nows into their wide mouths. On dissection he found only
small fishes in their stomachs.

Coles captured 9 of these rays in 1910 and saw a school vari-
ously estimated to contain 30 to 50. Their favorite sport con-
sists in leaping into the air, and this of course makes it very
hard to estimate the number in a school. IS^one of these rays ex-
ceeded 5 feet in width. The color of the fresh specimens is
black but after death this changes to a dark blue. The com-
monly accepted idea is that the horns of the Mantids are mov-
able and that they are used to grasp objects and transfer these
to their mouths. Coles by experiment proved that this is not
true of Mobula. The horns have little if any movement but the
cephalic fins, which are ordinarily carried tightly wrapped
around the horns, may be distended and used as indicated
above.

■Coles had the good fortune to see these rays in sexual union,
belly to belly, the female underneath on her back, her pectorals
curved upward closely embracing the pectorals of the male
which were also curved upward. Copulation lasted for some
time but was not continuous, being interrupted by separations
during which the fish leaped into the air or swam in graceful
curves.

By an interesting coincidence. Coles first three captures of
this ray in 1911 were made on the same days as those in 1910,
viz., July 6, 7, and 8. On these days he took 7 specimens, 6
males and one female. ISTo others were then seen in the bight of
the Cape until the night of Aug. 3, when the fishermen reported
a leaping devil-fish on the eastern side of the Cape breakers.
Daylight found Coles on the spot where he saw one leap and a
school pass under his boat. He surrounded this school in 10-
foot water, and captured 7 specimens (1 male and 6 females)
while one escaped over the cork-line and 2 under the lead-line.

Of the 14 specimens taken, Coles has retained 3 and has pre-

1913] Some Beaufort, E". C, Fishes 163

sented 4 to the United States National Museum, 2 to the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History (in addition to the 2 sent in
1910), 2 to the British Museum (Natural History), 2 to Mu-
seum D'Histoire Xaturelle, Paris, and one to the writer.

Jordan and Evermann (1896) say that the Mantid rays are
ovoviparous, but Coles on July 14, 1911, brought to the
writer at the Beaufort laboratory a preserved uterus with the
attached ovary (together with a yellow yolk which had escaped
during the operation of excision) taken from a female Mohula
a week previous. The egg on examination unfortunately, as has
often been the writer's experience in dealing with such, had lost
its embryo. The greatly swollen uterus measured externally
8I4 inches around, and 10% long while the length of the tube
connecting it with the cloaca was 3% inches. The walls of the
uterus at their thickest part measured 14, and at the thinnest
^ inch, and were very villous, as much so as any other ray here-
tofore examined. The villi measured from l/^ to % of an inch
long and the wall of the uterus to which they were attached was
composed of long palisade-like structures of which they seemed
to be outgrowths.

Ophichthus ocellatus (LeSueur).

Spotted Snake Eel.

The first reported capture of this eel in North Carolina
waters was that by Coles at Cape Lookout in April of the year
1910 while down on a short expedition. He reports that this
fish has the interesting habit of swimming or rather drifting in
a vertical position. So far as the writer knows this West Indian
eel has never before been caught north of Florida.

Lycodontis moringa (Cuvier).

Common Spotted Moray; Hamlet.

The first moray ever recorded at Beaufort was Lycodontis
ocellatus taken off the inner north-west corner of Bird Shoal in
eel-grass by George Bean and the writer on August 20, 1903.
Another one was caught by other parties the following year.
Since this latter time no moray had been taken in Beaufort
waters until July, 1911, when Coles procured a small one from

164 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

a bed of eel-grass in Bogue Sound near Morehead City. It was
presented by bim to tbe U. S. ISTational Museum and identified
by Mr. Bean as Lycodontis nioringa, a West Indian eel, not only
new to J^ortb Carolina but not before taken so far north.

Polydactylus octonemus (Girard).

Threadfin.

Another fish heretofore unknown in our waters, which Coles
had the good fortune to add to our ichthyological fauna, is the
threadfin, Polydactylus octonemus. While this fish, according
to Jordan and Evermann, (1896) is known to occur on sandy
shores along the Atlantic Coast as far north as New York, it is
nevertheless an extremely rare fish. Coles took his specimen at
Cape Lookout in July, 1910.

Monacanthus ciliatus (Mitchill).

Leather-fish.

While 3 species of the family Monacanthidje have been taken
at Beaufort, namely Monacanthus liispidus, C eratacanthus
schoepfii and C. punctatus, Monacanthus ciliatus is now record-
ed for the first time. In July, 1911, Coles took a small speci-
men about 3 inches long in company with M. hispidus in the
bight of Cape Lookout. This is a form common in Florida,
but, so far as the writer knows, it has not been taken so high up
the coast before.

Lactophrys tricornis (Linnaeus).

Cow-fish; Trunk-fish.

Of the 2 trunk-fishes recorded for Beaufort, Lactophrys trig-
onus, and L. triqueter, the writer collected a specimen of the
latter in 1902 and for some weeks kept it as an aquarium pet.
As such it was a very unique and interesting specimen, especi-
ally so in its feeding. In July, 1911, Mr. Coles, by taking
2 specimens about 4 inches long, added Lactophrys tricornis to
our local fauna, and in so doing has verified Dr. Smith's pre-
diction (page 344) that it "will no doubt in time be detected
on the North Carolina coast." These specimens are on deposit
in the National and American Museums.

19131 Some Beaufoet, K C, Fishes 165

Lyosphaera globosa Evermann and Kendall.

This fish, heretofore recorded from the mouth of the Rappa-
hannock River in Chesapeake Bay and from Biscayne Bay,
Florida, is now to be catalogued from an intermediate point
since Coles took two small ones in eel-grass at Cape Lookout in
July, 1911. His specimens, about the size of a man's thumb,
were kept for a half day in a bucket of salt water. He noted
that they are poor swimmers since they retain their globular
form while swimming.

Gobius glaucofraenum (Gill).

Another fish new to the fauna of I^orth Carolina is Gohius
glaucofraenum, which Coles took in 1911 in eel-grass in the
bight of Cape Lookout. His specimen, which is now in the
American Museum, is small and is presumably the first ever
taken north of the Florida Keys.

Porichthys porissimus (Cuvier & Valenciennes).

Bagre Sapo.

The last (14th) fish, which by the indefatigable energy of
Mr. Coles, has been added to the ichthyological fauna of ITorth
Carolina, is the interesting toad-fish, Porichthys porissimus.
This fine 8 or 9 inch specimen was taken at Wreck Point in
the bight of Cape Lookout early in July, 1911. Heretofore,
so far as the writer is informed, this southern form has not been
taken north of the South Carolina coast.

SPECIES RARE ON THE NORTH CAROLINA COAST.

In addition to these new species, Coles caught a number of
fishes not now in the Beaufort collection or at any rate but little
known, and it does not seem out of place to list them here that
record may be made of their occurrence in ]^orth Carolina
waters. Some of these are described in his paper elsewhere
referred to, but the data concerning the greater number were
communicated to the writer by Mr. Coles personally.

166 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Sphyrna zygsena (Linnaeus).

Hammer-head Shark.

The writer (1907) has described the capture and given full
and careful measurements of a female hammer-head Shark,
Sphyrna zygaena, 12 feet 6 inches long. This has for some
years remained the record shark in the Beaufort region not
merely for hammerheads but for all species. A new record
however was established during 1910 by Coles' capture of a
hammer-head 14 feet 3 inches long. This was also a female
which while being hauled up gave birth to 5 young averaging
29 inches in length. That this fish is more plentiful than is
commonly thought is attested by the fact that during June
and July, 1910, the writer took more than a dozen young ones
averaging 18 to 24 inches long at various fishing grounds in
ISTewport River. Fewer were taken in 1911.

Squatina squatina (Linnaeus).

Angel-fish; Monk-fish.

The only published record of the capture of this curious

shark is by Smith in his Fishes of North Carolina (1907).

This was in April, 1904, while in the same month in 1910 Coles

took another at the same place. Cape Lookout. He reports that

several were taken there in 1911.

Raja eglanteria Bosc.

Clear-nose; Brier Ray.

The present writer has elsewhere (1910) recorded the finding
of a dead and half dried specimen of the clear-nose ray, on
Fort Macon Beach and its deposit in the museum of the labora-
tory. Dr. Smith (1907) writes that he saw numerous rays of
this species on the beach at Cape Lookout in April, 1904. Coles
says that he found them abundant there in April, 1910, but saw
none in July. From this we may conclude that they are possi-
bly only winter migrants to our coast.

Albula vulpes (Linnaeus).

Lady-fish; Wolf -fish.

The lady-fish, or wolf-fish, Alhula vulpes, has been recorded

from Beaufort by Yarrow (1877), but has not since been taken

19131 Some Beaufoet, K C, Fishes 167

until Coles caught one at Cape Lookout in July, 1910, the only
one in 9 years' fishing there. The food value of this clupeoid is
slight because of the great number of its bones.

Athlennes hians (Cuvier and Valenciennes).

Gar-fish.

The flat-sided gar is comparatively rare, none being recorded
at Beaufort between 1885 and 1905, probably because they are
ordinarily confounded with other gars, especially Tylosurus
marinus. In this later year quite a number were taken. Coles
caught several at Cape Lookout during 1910, and a number in
1911.

Auxis thazard Lacepede.

Frigate Mackerel.

This frigate mackerel has been only sparingly reported from
Beaufort being called "bonito" and not carefully distinguished
from the fish properly so-named. Coles reports large schools of
them at Cape Lookout in July, 1909, and 1910, but none were
found in 1911.

Sarda sarda (Bloch).

Bonito.

The bonito is not very uncommon at Beaufort, but does not
reach the size attained elsewhere. Smith (1907) gives its
average weight as 5 to 6 pounds, and that of the largest hitherto
recorded at 12 pounds. Coles, however, reports the capture of
several at the Cape in 1910 weighing slightly over 25 pounds
each. He caught only a few in 1911, and these of smaller size.

Oligoplites saurus (Bloch and Schneider).

Leather-jacket.

The leather-jacket has been recorded from Beaufort but one
time despite the fact that it has been taken as far north as
I^ew York. According to Dr. Smith, on May 17, 1904, a
fisherman brought a 10 inch specimen to the Beaufort labora-
tory. Late in June, 1911, Coles collected a 10-inch specimen
at Cape Lookout.

168 Journal of the Mitchell Society {^February

Seriola lalandi (Cuvier and Valenciennes).

Amber-fish,

According to Smith (1907, p. 203), "There appear to be no
published records of its capture in North Carolina, but it un-
doubtedly occurs there every year and could be found if sought
for with proper apparatus on the outer shores." This pro-
phecy was verified by Coles, who, at Cape Lookout in July,
1910, took several specimens.

Caranx bartholomaei (Cuvier and Valenciennes).

Yellow Jack.

Of the genus Caranx, Coles took the following species in
July, 1910, hartolomaei, crysos, and latus. Of the former but
one specimen has been taken at the laboratory since 1885, and
that in August, 1905. Of the second and third a number have
been taken of late years, mainly in the pound net operated by
the laboratory. In 1911, Coles collected and forwarded to the
American Museum several specimens of C. bartholomaei.

Vomer setipinnis (Mitchill).

Horse-fish.

The horse-fish, while not rare at Beaufort, is so far as is known

not taken in any quantity, hence it is somewhat surprising to

read that in July, 1910, Coles took about 100 pounds of this

fish at the Cape in a single haul. He reports it as excellent

eating.

Chloroscombrus chrysurus (Linnaeus).

Bumper.

Of the related Chloroscombrus chrysurus but few captures are
noted on the laboratory cards and these at wide intervals.
However, Coles found them in fairly large numbers at Cape
Lookout in July, 1910, and again in 1911.

Trachinotus glaucus (Bloch).

Gaff-topsail Pompano.

The gafl^-topsail pomj)ano is at present a rare fish at Beau-
fort, although it is reported to have been fairly abundant some
15 years ago. In 1903 a 9-inch specimen was taken, and in

1913] Some Beaufort, K C, Fishes 169

July, 1911 Coles took a number of young while seining for
blue-fish at Cape Lookout.

Trachinotus falcatus (Linnaeus).

Round Pompano.

Only young specimens of the round pompano seem to have been
taken at Beaufort. Likewise Coles' specimens collected at Cape
Lookout in July 1911 were young. They were taken in com-
pany with T. glaucus and T. carolinus.

Lutianus griseus (Linnaeus).

Gray Snapper; Mangrove Snapper.

Our only record of this West Indian snapper is contained in
Smith's Fishes (p. 287) where it is stated that 4 small speci-
mens were seined in Beaufort harbor in 1902. Coles' capture
of one small specimen in eel-grass at Cape Lookout in July,
1911 will constitute a second record.

Haemulon plumieri (Lacepede).

Black Grunt.

Heretofore the "snapper banks" off Cape Fear have been
constituted the northern limit of the black grunt, Haemulon
plumieri. This however must now be moved to the "rocks" of
IN'ew River Inlet, since Coles finds them there in great numbers.
He caught them running up to l^^ pounds in weight in 1911.

Bathystoma rimator (Jordan and Swain).

Tom Tate; Red-mouthed Grunt.

The Cape Fear "banks" have also been heretofore the north-
ern limit for the adult "tom-tate grunt", but Mr. Coles found
them likewise common at the l*^ew River Inlet "rocks" in 1911.
However they are small, averaging less than ^2 pound in
weight. At Beaufort numbers of young have been taken but
no adults.

Otrynter caprinus (Bean).

Long-spined Porgy.

This porgy was not known at Beaufort prior to 1904 when a
number were taken in the laboratory pound net. In 9 years'

170 Journal of the Mitchell Society [^February

fishing at Cape Lookout, Coles has caught but 7, 6 of which
were taken in 1910 and one in 1911.

Cynoscion nothus (Holbrook).

Silver Squeteague.

While the gray and spotted sea trouts, Cynoscion regalis
and nebulosus, are among the most common and valuable food
fishes at Beaufort, the rare form C. nothus, the silver sque-
teague, is known from but one specimen taken just outside the
Inlet in 1899. Coles, however, took one at I^ew River Inlet in
January and another at the Cape in April, 1910, and in 1911
at the same place a young one which he presented to the United
States National Museum. It seems to be either a solitary fish
or else a straggler in the Beaufort region.

Larimus fasciatus (Holbrook).

Banded Drum.

The banded drum is a fish so little known at Beaufort that its
capture at Cape Lookout by Coles in 1910 seems worthy of
record. Only a few were taken in this year, but in 1911 Mr.
Coles relates that he made a catch of such size that his net
threatened to break. Although it was ''backed" from around the
school, even then it took hours to clear it of the gilled fish. A
number of these were sent to the National Museum.

Iridio bivittatus (Bloch).

Slippery Dick.

This beautiful little tropical fish is seldom taken at Beaufort,

in fact the specimens dredged by the steamer Fish-Hawk in

1902 are the last recorded until Coles collected several in July,

1910, in eel-grass growing in shallow water in the bight of the

Cape. He writes that the name is well bestowed, the little fish

being harder to hold than a small eel would be. None were

taken in 1911.

Prionotus evolans (Linnaeus).

Striped Sea-robin.

This interesting gurnard has not been taken at Beaufort in
over 25 years though it is known only from the coast of the

1913] Some Beaufort, N. C, Fishes 171

Carolinas. However, at Cape Lookout Coles captured a dozen
specimens during July, 1910. These are all deposited in the
American Museum of Natural History. A few were taken in
1911.

Astroscopus y-graecum (Cuvier and Valenciennes).
Electric Star-gazer.

The electric star-gazer, the ^'electric toad" of the fishermen,
is occasionally taken at Beaufort and the laboratory museum
has several specimens. ISTone however reach the size of the 15-
inch individual taken with the spear by Coles in July, 1910.
Two other small ones were also captured by him. The present
writer on July 14, 1904, in the inner harbor at Beaufort col-
lected a young one only 2^ inches long. This w^as much
darker in color than the adults and lacked the spots.

The writer has seen the star-gazer, by convulsive movements
of its body, bury itself in the sand at the bottom of an aquarium
until only its mouth and eyes were visible. The water pumped
through the mouth and over the gills escaped on each side
through a conical depression in the sand above the hinder edge
of each opercle. Since the fish lie thus imbedded in the sand,
the lead lines of the seines pass over them readily and few are
taken. Consequently but little idea of their relative abundance
can be formed.

The electric organs are in the head back of and between the
eyes. These are said to give shocks more powerful in propor-
tion to their size than those of any other electric fish, but Coles
reports that he found their power much weaker than that of
the corresponding organs of Narcine hrasiliensis.

State Normal College, Greensboro, N. C.

LITERATURE CITED

1910 — Aller, Henry D. The Work of the Marine Biological Station of
the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries at Beaufort, N. C, during the
year 1909. Science, May 6, 1910.

1911 — Bean, B. A. and Weed, A. C. An Electric Ray and its Young
from the West Coast of Florida. Proceedings U. S. Nation-
al Museum, vol. XL, pp. 231-32, plates 10-11.

172 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

1910 — Coles, Russell J. Observations on the Habits and Distribution
of Certain Fishes taken on the Coast of North Carolina.
Bulletin American Museum of Natural History, vol. XXVIII
art. 28, Nov., 1910.

1907 — Gudger, E. W. A Note on the Hammer-head Shark and its
Food. Science, n. s., vol. XXV., pp. 1005-1006.

1910 — Gudger, E. W. Notes on Some Beaufort Fishes — 1909. Ameri-
can Naturalist, vol. XLIV, pp. 395-403.

1912 — Gudger, E. W. Natural History Notes on Some Beaufort, N. C,
Fishes, 1910-11. No. I. Elasmobranchii — with Special Ref-
erence to Utero-Gestation. Proceedings Biological Society
of Washington, vol. XXV, pp. 141-156.

1912a — Gudger, E. W. Natural History Notes on Some Beaufort, N. C.
C, Fishes, 1910-11. No. II. Teleostomi. Proceedings
Biological Society of Washington, vol. XXV, pp. 165-176.

1896-1900 — Jordan, D. S., and Evermann, B. W. The Fishes of North
and Middle America. Pts. I, II, III, and IV. Washington.

1912 — Pellegrin, Jacques. Sur le Dentition des Diables de Mer.
Bulletin de la Societe Philomathique de Paris. Series 10,
Tome IV, pp. 1-8.

1907 — Smith, H. M. The Fishes of North Carolina. North Carolina
Geological and Economic Survey. Raleigh.

1877 — Yarrow, H. C. Notes on the Natural History of Ft. Macon, N.
C., and Vicinity; no. 3, Fishes. Proceedings Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, vol. XXIX, p. 215.

EECENT VIEWS ON THE CHEMISTRY OF DIET*
By Isaac F. Harris

Under the subject of diet we include all chemical substances
which have to do with the nutrition of man. Hall has defined
it as the physiological process of supplying the material needs
of the body. In a broad sense, it means food, drink and oxy-
genation. A mixed diet consists of non-diffusible proteins, car-
bo-hydrates and fats, and the function of the digestive process
is to break up these complex molecules into smaller, simpler,
soluble and diffusible ones, which are capable of absorption and
utilization by the body processes. The science of dietics in-
volves the knowledge of the chemical composition of the human
body and of the foods with which it is proposed to maintain and
repair it, and the sequence of chemical changes which the body
undergoes during the multiple processes of digestion and assim-
ilation.

The nutrition of man is comparable to the fertilization of
a vegatable form. In the latter case we first observe the
chemical make-up of the plant and then look for a fertilizing
material which will best supply these elements. If the plant
has a high content of potassium, like the tubers, then we supply
potassium to the soil. If the case in point be man, with a high
content of nitrogenous, albumin-like tissue, then we must sup-
ply nitrogen in the diet. Furthermore, the supply of chemical
elements in the food must be in such combination or molecular
arrangement as to be available to the metabolic processes of the
individual to be fed. While plant life in general can derive
its nitrogen supply from the inorganic nitrates of the soil, man
can obtain his nitrogen requirement from protein or albumin-
like sources, only. McCollum says regarding a mixed, balanced
diet, " Unquestionably the physiological value of a ration is
largely dependent upon its chemical constituents, but the usual
determinations made on feeding materials do not reveal the
character or manner of combination of many of the constituents.

*Read before the Jenkins Medical Association, Yonkers, N. Y., December 12tli,
1912. 173

174 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Consequently, the physiological value can be determined in
the present state of our knowledge only by long continued ob-
servations of the reactions of the feed on animals."

In designing a complete ration for man one finds that the
food elements fall naturally into three great groups, or classes :
The proteins, carbo-hydrates and fats, and inseparably asso'
ciated with them, the inorganic salts or ash of the food. Of
these various constituents, the only dispensible one is the
fats. One cannot indefinitely omit the carbo-hydrates por-
tion without serious pathological consequences, and, even-
tually, death. Though the fats are a normal and

important portion of the daily food intake of all classes
of men, they are, theoretically, dispensible and practi-
cally, can be less regarded than any other constituent.
As regards the mineral portion, or the inorganic elements, there
are certain chemical elements like sodium, potassium, chlorine,
sulphuric acid, the phosphates, etc., which could be considerably
reduced, but as a whole class of bodies they are fundamentally
and absolutely indispensable.

Generally speaking, there are as many dietaries as there
are kinds and races of men. For example: There is the
diet of the Japanese coolie, the peasant of Europe,
the soldiers of the various armies, the American col-
lege man, the American athletes, European and American vege-
tarians, California fruitarians, et cetra, to infinity. All are
living, all are active and healthy, and no one of them has fallen
into any special classification of greater activity of mind or
body, nor of greater life period. Each of these classes has been
the subject of special study during long periods and more or less
standards of diet have been the results. The standards of the
various armies and classes of people of the world, have con-
tained a fuel value ranging from 3000 to 5000 calories, and
a protein allotment of from 30 to 180 grams, daily. Dr. Arnold,
in his recent Atlantic City address, suggested the establishment
of four standard diets for hospitals. He recommended the
proportion of 100 grams protein, 80 grams fats and 300 grams
of carbo-hydrates, and that these be arranged in such quantity

1913^ Chemistry of Diet 175

that diets Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 should contain 1500, 2000, 2500
and 3000 calories, respectively. Personally, I would think
his protein per cent, for a sick man very high. However, this
is a matter of opinion, after all, and depends altogether upon
what is indicated. Of all the conspicuous and far reaching
dietaries of this kind, the most recent were, probably, those of
Professor Chittenden and associates, at Yale, upon United
States soldiers. These men were under military discipline all
the while, and their diet and activity were capable of accurate
measurement during a relatively long period. The results of
these experiments, familiar to you all, was to lower the protein
standard or requirement to about 40 to 50 grams, per day, or,
one-third the usual practice for an average healthy man per-
forming a normal daily routine of active life. The protein part
of the diet has always been the subject of chief interest on
account of its great complexity and its relation to the repair
of tissue wastes and the association of its end-products of
digestion with pathological conditions.

It has been very valuable to establish upon an experimental
basis these various standards of the past. However,
they must be looked upon as maximum and minimum
guides between which we may select with discretion
and not as rules to follow. There can be no satis-
factory diet for all classes of men or any individual for
all time. ISTo two of us will get the same results from a fixed
diet, neither will any one of us continue indefinitely to derive
the same results from a fixed diet for all times of life. You
have doubtless been asked many times, "Doctor, what shall I
eat ?" If you take it seriously, it is one of the hardest questions
you receive in your practice and calls for many in return from
you. You must first know the conditions for which you are to
prescribe. It all depends upon the age, bodily activity, health,
environment of climate, state of mind, etc., and, last of all,
what you can find out about the personal idiosyncracies. It
may be reasonable for you to inquire in return, '' Are your
habits, proportions and physiological processes normal, in your
best knowledge ?" " Do you suffer from anemia, or surplus

176 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

adipose ?" "Are jou worried or tappj ?" "Married or single ?"
"How is your peristaltic wave?" "Is your indican high?"
"What are your bacterial flora ?" "Is the alcoholic proportion
of your diet excessive?" "What is your average opsonic in-
dex ?" "Do you 'Fletcherize' or bolt your food ?" "Are you a
commuter?" These questions may seem slightly fanciful, but
each and every one has a relation to what the ration should be
and the fate of such food products in the twelve yards of the
digestive tract. More seriously, Dr. Benedict, in his recent
studies of metabolism of man has said, "When we consider the
chemical complexity of man's organism, the considerable differ-
ences in size, weight and temperament and the marked changes
in diet and physical activity in the course of his daily life, it is
difficult to imagine him having a normal metabolism to which
all metabolism measurements can be referred. No two people
may be said to be alike, even in physical appearance, and it is
reasonable to suppose that when all the factors of life are taken
into consideration this lack of similarity will be even more ap-
parent. Different people, would, therefore, be expected, a
priori, to show marked differences in metabolism, and yet the
collection of statistics regarding the metabolic functions of in-
dividuals approximating uniformity in size, weight, physical
activity and general development will give results of distinct
value and interest." Observation of the results of Benedict in
the experiments of metabolism of man by the calorimeter meth-
od shows ^vhat a wide range of conditions the dietitian has to
deal with.

There cannot be, of course, a fixed standard of food
in regard to either calorific or tissue-building functions without
noting all the data and specific idiosyncracies of the individual
under consideration. However, general laws may be laid down
under specific conditions of age, body weight, etc., as constants,
which may be applicable to new individual cases with remark-
able physiological accuracy. Benedict, in a striking series of
experiments has demonstrated very clearly that a change from
a diet poor in carbo-hydrates to one rich in carbo-hydrate is
accompanied by a considerable retention of water by the tissues

1913], Chemistry of Diet 177

of the body. Converselj^, he has shown that when a change is
made from the rich carbo-hydrate diet and a fat diet is sub-
stituted, there is a considerable loss of water to the body. It is
obvious, therefore, that if a change is made from a normal diet
to one containing an excessive proportion of carbo-hydrates,
even though the total nutrients in the food may be insufficient
for the maintenance of the body, the excess carbo-hydrates may
cause the retention of a sufficient amount of water to more than
make up for the loss in the body material resulting from the
decrease in the total body food supply.

A typical experiment follows : Diet for three days
largely carbo-hydrate, suddenly changed to one of equi-
valent energy, which, however, was derived in large
part from fat. The changes in body weight during
the series was remarkable and interesting. During the
three days carbo-hydrate period, there was a total gain of 61
grams (2 ounces). On the fourth day the diet was so changed
that the greater part of the energy came from the fat rather
than from the carbo-hydrates. Although the total amount of
food and drink ingested during the fat period was somewhat
greater, there was a very material loss to the body, averaging
914 grams (30 ounces) per day. The gain and loss above had
to do with water only. Benedict says this rapid loss of water
under specific diet should be interesting to continue with vari-
ous inorganic salts and is significant in such pathological condi-
tions as dropsy. What factors in the diet determine the gain
of water are of great importance.

Generally speaking, it matters not what the source of the
carbo-hydrate may be. Of course, we must recognize the fact
that the new starches, surrounded by a mass of indigestible
tissue, is the most of all likely to escape the digestive
juices, and, therefore, the one which is liable to pass
through the body unused to the greatest extent; that
is, considering that the raw starch must be disintegrated
and prepared for digestion by the grinding action of the teeth
during an era of rush and bolting of food, it is very probable
that much of it will escape grinding and imbedded in the sur-

178 JouENAL OF THE MiTCHELL SociETY [February

rounding tissue of indigestible cellulose, will escape conversion
into soluble food products. Therefore, if the starch be fed
wholly uncooked it must be allowed more freely in the diet
because a greater part will never become available as food ma-
terial. This is strikingly shown in a vegetarian or fruitarian
diet where the uncooked carbo-hydrate proportion is allowed in
such quantities. To offset this condition we must bear in mind
that this kind of starch or carbo-hydrate food will assist in fill-
ing the intestine with an indigestible mass of fibre which
plays an important function in stimulating peristaltic action
and giving character to the feces. If the carbo-hydrate be fed
in the form of cooked starch, the hard granules have been rup-
tured and the first stage of starch digestion has begun. The
swelling and hydration has taken place and a certain amount
of soluble starch and dextrin have already been formed.

Such a carbo-hydrate mass is capable of very rapid conversion
into soluble sugars under the influence of deliberate mastication
in the presence of an active saliva. Those of us who have many
times witnessed the action of such diastatic enzymes as ptyalin,
pancreatic, lipase, or maltase upon a well cooked and partly
dextrinized starch at body temperature have been impressed
with the rapidity of this enzyme action in comparison Avith
the slower action of pepsin and trypsin upon the proteins. It
has been shown that the three pancreatic enzymes capable of
digesting proteins, carbo-hydrates and fats are found in the
intestine of the new-born infant from the very first. There-
fore, we may expect a co-operation between the saliva and the
pancreatic juice in the breaking up of starches, even in early
life. Where it is of interest to spare the diastatic digestion any
extra work, or where the individual does not ''handle" his
carbo-hydrate well, we naturally turn to the soluble sugars and
it matters not greatly which one we may select. In some recent
experimental work in animal feeding, lactose has indicated
some superiority to the other sugars of the diet, but at present
that information is incomplete and is not available.

Just what the amount of this carbo-hydrate portion should be,
depends u]3on the proportion of protein and fats. You will recall

1913'\ Chemistry of Diet 1T9

that the carbo-hydrate oxydizes in the body to form water and
carbon dioxide, while the protein substances gives such end pro-
ducts as urea and uric acid. Therefore, the body has eventually
from a high carbo-hydrate diet, simple chemical end-products,
which are not associated with trouble in elimination. It is impor-
tant to supply ample fuel value in readily digestible carbo-hy-
drate in order to spare the protein. It is more justifiable to deal
out the carbo-hydrate in excess in the diet than any other consti-
tuent. It is "handled" by the body with the least effort and
saves any protein which should go into forming new body tis-
sues from having to act as a fuel on account of shortage else-
where of either fat or carbo-hydrate. This sparing action of
the carbo-hydrate upon the fuel protein or tissue protein is no-
where better shown than in the case of the Southern negro in
the fields during the sugar cane season. He quite largely exists
upon the thick syrup of the sugar cane, and naturally conserves
in this way his limited amount of protein, and thus meets the
"high cost of living."

Referring again to the fat portion, I may say that
the theory of transmigration of fat globules seems
untenable. There is great doubt if any neutral fat passes to
epithelial cells of the intestines as such. It must be split up by
the combined action of the alkaline pancreatic juice and bile
into its simpler constituents, the fatty acids and glycerine. To
be sure, the fat soluble dyes, such as Sudan 3 and Biebrich
Scarlet, when fed dissolved in such fat as olive oil, do appear
in the laid-on adipose tissue and in the lipoid layers in the
yolk of the egg. But this does not prove the transmigration of
neutral, undigested fat, which may be explained by the ab-
sorbtive action of the circulating bile upon the split fatty acids
and dye at the same time. In other words, the transport of
fat-soluble dye may be done by the bile and finally deposited
with the adipose tissue, where we find it in post-mortem. If
glycerine and fatty acids are fed, fat will be formed and de-
posited the same as from a diet of neutral fat. Also, if the
soaps of the fatty acids are fed the corresponding fats will be
deposited. Furthermore, if fatty acids alone are fed, fat will

180 JouEXAL OF THE MiTCHELL SociETY [February

be formed and deposited just the same as on a diet of neutral
fat. In other words, during a fat-free diet containing the fatty
acid radicals only, the corresponding fats will appear in the
intestinal epithelial cells all the while, showing that the body
has the power of immediately synthesizing the glycerine and
combining the two to form a circulating fat. ISTot only has the
body the power of synthesizing the glycerol portion, but also
the fatty acid radicle. In summary, it can synthesize its own fat
from other non-fat constituents or "building stones" of the
diet. Long time experiments with chemically fat-free rations
show an increase maintenance of body fat tissue. Besides, we
have the old well-used example of the milk and butter fat pro-
duction in large quantity on a practically fat-free diet, that is,
from a largely carbo-hydrate and protein diet, where the intake
of fat elements is very far out of proportion to the fat pro-
duction and secretion.

Are the proteins, carbo-hydrates and fats of the
diet specific for the synthesis of specific tissue ? iNTo.
Does it require absolutely and exclusively the casein and
lactalbumin of mother's milk to produce the infant tissue and
infant metabolic exchanges ? No. Does it require the Gliadin
and associated proteins of the endospern of the wheat kernel
to produce the wheat plantlet? We do not know. And why
did l^ature ''happen" to place a crystalline albumin in the egg
and the protein edestin in the kernel of the hemjD seed ? Ten
years ago I recall hearing my associate and teacher. Dr. Thomas
B. Osborne, of ISTew Haven, say: "Suppose the reserve pro-
teins are specific for each biological kind. What would happen
if we could aseptically replace the albumin of the egg with the
protein gliadin of the wheat and incubate the resulting product ?
Would we produce a chick of normal proportions, or would he
take on vegetative characteristics, develop chlorophyl, multiple
wings, and keep cool in summer under the shade of his own
green leaves ?" Of course, this was an indulgence of the imagi-
nation to the production of a monstrosity.

But, seriously again, we are just now in the dawn
of a newer and broader chemistry whereby some of

1913^ Chemistry of Diet 181

these complicated processes associated with the intri-
cate iDi'otein molecules are beginning to clear up. It has
been the good fortune of Dr. Osborne, whom I mentioned above,
to play a leading part in the solution of these problems. Quite
within this decade the protein molecule has begun to yield its
great store of secrets and we are now in possession of practically
all the decomposition products of the most familiar proteins
and the gross molecular composition of the most important con-
stituent of the dietary is quite well known. The average pro-
tein has a molecular weight of approximately 2000, and consists
of practically 24 distinct chemical substances, linked together
to form the complete protein. The simplest protein molecule
consists of about 15 distinct and diiferent amino acids and
about three more basic substances, and when the protein ma-
terial is such a one as nucleoprotein, it contains phosphorus
in that complicated organic body, nucleic acid. Then the chem-
istry of it becomes even more comj^licated, though the compo-
sition of the nucleic acids also is quite well understood today.

It is through just such careful feeding experiments as those
conductor by Osborne and Mendel today that these questions of
specificity of the diet are being answered. Such feedings for
long periods on a single protein substance, while all other con-
stituents of the diet are satisfied, has shown for long time that
w^hen that protein substance is gelatine, wheat gliadin, zein
from the maize, etc., that the animal cannot live beyond a rea-
sonable wasting period. Why ? Because those proteins do not
contain all the elements necessary for tissue synthesis. Gelatin
or wheat gliadin have little or no tryptophane, little glycocoll,
and are short in other respects of certain food groups which the
body must get from the alimentation to manufacture blood
serum-albumin, muscle-myosin, hematin, haemoglobin and the
like tissues of the body. It is simply a problem of chemical con-
struction. The building materials must be supplied. If you
wish to build a brick house you buy brick, lime, sand and water.
Therefore, if you w^ish to build a human body, you must sup-
ply the chemical building stones or ''Bausteine."

In regard to the proteins, they are apparently not strictly spe-

182 Journal of the MiTcaiELL Society [Feh'ruary

cific, but are to a degree. Only recently experimental animals
liave been nourished into the second and third generation upon a
rounded diet containing a single protein. But, that protein had
to be relatively complete in its chemical make-up. In the present
state of our knowledge in regard to the protein portion of the
diet, it is well to select a variety so that we may be reasonably
sure to include all the chemical groups or "Bausteine," Avhich
must be present in the nitrogenous part of the food.

Eegarding the specificity of the carbo-hydrates, they are of a
much simpler composition, are only one substance and may be
looked upon chiefly as a carbonaceous fuel for the great metabo-
lic furnace. In a normal individual the carbo-hydrate portion of
the ration is soon converted into the dextrose or circulating sugar
which is readily oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. It matters
not whether that carbo-hydrate is a soluble starch or a soluble
sugar, the processes of a normal digestion can handle it. Of
course, we are assuming that the carbo-hydrate in question is a
common food starch or sugar and not a complicated cellulose of
indigestible structure and composition, such as the algse, wheat
straw or hay. Bear in mind, at this point, we are only bring-
ing out the point of specificity of the various elements of the
diet, and the carbo-hydrates are not such. The whole carbo-
hydrate, from a pure dietary standpoint, may be lactose or
cane sugar through the whole of a long life time with perfect
nutritive results.

How about the fats ? Are they specific for specific
adipose tissue formation? ISTo, they are not. We are
quite positive about this matter recently. This may be modified
by abnormalities, but under the well and healthy conditions of
the oxidative, fermentative and absorbtive processes of the body,
any suitable fat may be fed, and may be fed continuously.
Why? What is the function of it? It is first, a great fuel
food of twice the calorific value of carbo-hydrate and twice that
of the protein. Then, it acts to spare the protein oxydation
and takes the place of the carbo-hydrate when it is not sufiicient
calorific amount. Possibly the hyrolytic products of fat di-
gestion, glycerine and the corresponding fatty acids, leads to a

1913'] Chemistry of Diet 183

more ready formation of the fatty tissues of the body than
were they not supplied. However, we know recently that the
fat of the body surplus may be synthesized from the carbo-hy-
drate or protein of the diet and, further than that, we have
animal experiments where they have been fed into the second
generation and have given milk to their young on a fat-free
diet. When the fat is omitted from the dietary, the correspond-
ing calories must be supplied by the carbo-hydrate in order to
spare the protein.

In the summary, the proteins are to a slight degree,
specific foods, but the carbo-hydrates and fats are not at
all so. Regarding protein specificially : Osborne and Mendel
say today, ''Whatever may be the source or chemical make-up
of the protein previous to its involvement in the nutritive pro-
cesses, the resulting tissue cells and fluids remain characteristic
and specific for the species."

It is well known that by limiting the food supply of an un-
grown individual, its development may be retarded. If the
underfeeding is prolonged through the cycle of growth,
the full stature limited by heredity may not be
attained. The Sub-normal growth of immature animals
on such a typical experiment as wheat-gliadin — stunting
of albino rats suggests a chemical explanation of beneficial ef-
fects observed from a "change of environment, vacation, coun-
try air, mineral springs, and the like" when the individual in
his or her daily routine at home, may have been suffering from
a deficiency of some special chemical element or group, which
he required in greater amount. These specific substances which
we do not always get in sufficient quantity are typified in iodine
and its relation to the thyroid, grovs^th and control ; and a phos-
phorus deficiency, as shown in beri-beri. Certain individuals
have wasteful idiosyncracies, whereby they do not conserve all
the chemical elements and groups which reach the alimentary
tract in the food, and, consequently, they must be fed these
s'ame substances in greater quantity or in more assimilable
form. McCrudden, (Rockefeller Institute) has recently shown
that in certain cases of retarded growth there is faulty skeletal

184: Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

development and disturbance of calcium metabolism. The
bones are frail and easily fractured. Large quantities of
calcium are lost through the feces, while the urine is almost
free from calcium. He says it seems possible that the retarded
skeletal development is due to the lack of calcium salts available
for bone growth. Likewise, most of us receive sufficient metal-
lic iron in our dietary, but if abnormal amounts are discarded
in the intestinal waste, symptoms of anemia may follow and
assimilable iron feeding may be indicated.

I have discussed the minimum protein of the diet, but what of
excessive amounts ? One interesting observation is the relation of
forced feeding (by this I mean excessive feeding) to the content
of inorganic salts. Quoting Osborne and Mendel again, ''In
forced protein and forced fat feeding, we must look out for the
inorganic bases, or the acid digestion products of the food will
drain the skeleton of sodium, potassium, magnesium and like
bases, and the net result may be a gain in adipose and muscular
tissue at a sacrifice of skeleton. This is particularly the result
of the acid end-products of the carbo-hydrate portion. You
recall a typical abnormal illustration of this type in acid or
Ketonuria, associated with sugar combustion. Such individ-
uals must have the common bases to neutralize these acid pro-
ducts or the sacrifice of these elements by the body must follow.

Just at this point I feel justified in a few remarks regarding
bacterial flora. Though bacteriological, it cannot be omitted
from dietary studies any longer. The organisms common to
the intestinal tract when feeding upon a rich protein diet pro-
duce basic or alkaline end-products, while on a carbo-hydrate
surplus the local conditions become acid. Whether this chem-
ical condition be alkaline or acid determines to a large extent
the permanent bacterial flora. Quoting Kendall: "A most
fundamental principle of bacterial metabolism may be ex-
pressed thus: Fermentation takes precedence over putrefac-
tion." That is to say, bacteria in general which can use both
carbo-hydrate and protein act upon the former in preference
to the latter, though both are present in the same food. It must
be remembered that all true toxins are nitrogenous, while acids

1913] Chemistry of Diet 185

as produced hy fermentation are at worst but irritants and are
for the most part non-nitrogenous. It would appear, therefore,
that the production of toxic substances of bacterial origin must
be the result of proteolytic putrefactive activity rather than of
fermentative activity.

The importance of the saving action of carbo-hydrate
for protein in the light of toxin production must be
apparent. In this connection again, Osborne and Men-
del have attributed great importance to the bacterial flora in
their success in maintaining animals on what we might call
insufficient food. In the first place, they have reported what
has many times been observed, i. e., that their caged animals,
living on an artificial and under-nourishing diet, will eat of their
own feces. Furthermore, they report the interesting observa-
tion that their animals fed on a stunting diet, will eat the feces
of other rats rather than their own, when the opportunity is
oft'ered. In a number of such cases, they have observed an im-
mediate improvement in the rate of growth, while the diet
remained constant. This gain in utilization of the food, they
have attributed in such cases to a new acquisition of bacteria.
By way of illustration : Their maintenance diets for the albino
rats, were purine-free and they advance the hypothesis that prob-
ably the bacterial flora played an important part in such synthe-
sis as the purines. Quoting Herter : ''The number of bacteria
in the daily excreta of man has been estimated as aj)proximate-
ly 126 billion." Such an amount of bacterial activity cannot
be overlooked in the chemical production or synthesis of definite
compounds. Osborne and Mendel suggest that probably the
bacteria are able to synthesize some of these necessary com-
pounds which, without them, would be unavailable for epithelial
absorbtion. In other words, when the animal under dietary
study is observed to exist on a purine and lipoid-free diet,
possibly those substances become available for absorbtion in
the intestinal tract from the disintegration of bacterial bodies.
McCollum has recently demonstrated the long maintenance
of hens on a chemically fat-free and lipoid-free diet. Under
these conditions, pounds of eggs, during successive weeks, were

186 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Fehruary

collected with the normal content of lecithin and fats in the
yolks. Was that due to bacterial flora or can the hen synthesize
lecithin? Another interesting aspect of the widely recognized
importance of the bacterial flora has been the nmshroom-like
growth of the ideas of Metchinkoff and Massol upon the lactic
acid bacillus and cultures.

The fundamental principles of fighting one bacterium
with another harmless culture and the resulting cleans-
ing of the intestinal tract of putrefactive, poisonous,
substances is to you a familiar problem. Quoting Her-
ter again: ''The work of Baumann and others has taught us
that although the putrefactive decomposition of the protein in
the intestine is a consequence of micro-organisms which regular-
ly inhabit the gut, this decomposition often exceeds the limits
of health."

In dealing with these putrefactive conditions we have
various methods at our disposal. Besides the cleansing of
the intestinal tract with acid-producing cultures, we have the
wide variety of medicinal laxatives and antiseptic drugs. There
is one other more recent method to which I would call your
attention. In cases of intestinal activity caused by a too high
purity of food intake, possibly with too little indigestible fibrous
material, or from sluggish peristalsis, or any other cause, the
result is the condition of common constipation which means a
chapter of typical toxic conditions, most of which can be readily
produced experimentally by doses per os of the products of pro-
tein putrefaction, that is, indol, skatol, putrescine, phenol,
kresol, etc. It has become a rather recent practice to feed to
such individuals the polysaccharide, hemicellulose, agar agar,
to produce filling of the gut, or what is called in feeding ex-
periments, "roughage." This is supposed to act by hydrating
to an enormous degree and bringing about a stimulation of
peristaltic movements.

I have been particularly interested in these proper-
ties of agar agar because a great deal of the original
and best work on the indigestibility of this and other related
marine forms has been done at the Yale Physicological Labo-

lOloj Chemistky of Diet 187

ratories, and part of it was in progress while I was there. It
was a common sight in those days to see the Japanese investiga-
tor, T. Saiki, eating great hands full of these dry celluloses,
without accompaniment. His published results are doubtless
familiar to you. In conducting some of these experiments
upon myself during recent weeks, I happened to observe that
my formerly always low indican coefficient was now alarming-
ly high. ^Naturally I looked for the cause, and think I have
found it in the agar feeding. On discontinuing the agar agar
my indicanuria dropped. On taking up the diet again it re-
curred. Furthermore, I have confirmed this fact with a half
dozen to a dozen cases. Though this is not a large number
I am convinced of the observation because I have had a hun-
dred per cent, positive results. I am giving you this as a new
set of facts. It is to me extremely interesting that a substance
that has been fed for the purpose of removal of putrefactive
products has caused a high absorbtion of the chief of these,
indol. I wish you to regard this as a preliminary statement,
only. I cannot explain it yet.

I have here for your interest a set of indican
tubes taken from a typical case such as I have men-
tioned. The tubes begin with normal days and end with normal
days, including in the series one or two days following only one
day of feeding ten grams of agar agar with a common break-
fast cereal and milk. I might say that I have in progress a set
of experiments to show the effect of feeding various agar prep-
arations and "agar bread." The absorbtion of indoxyl has al-
ways been prompt and its elimination equally so. Certain
cases, however, have led me to expect that the condition of
indicanuria may persist for many days. I solicit your criti-
cisms, suggestions and explanations of this phenomenon.

There is yet another relationship between the protein of the
diet and indicanuria to which I would call your attention. Aside
from all other considerations, the formation of indol must come
from the protein. Several years ago. Dr. Osborne and myself
have shown that certain proteins, like gliadin, do not give the
tryptophane reaction. That is, they do not contain it, or only in

188 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

traces. TJnderhill has shown that tryptophane is the direct
precursor of indol or indican in the urine. Furthermore he
has demonstrated, experimentally, that the output of indican
in the urine falls immediately, when the individual is fed on a
tryptophane-free protein exclusively. When the individual
was returned to a meat diet, the increase in indol formation
promptly appeared. This is suggestive in the treatment of ex-
cessive putrefaction cases, where the practice is often to reduce
the protein of the diet to a partial starvation basis. Why starve
the body cells of all the food constituents of the protein mole-
cule when only one is the offender? Why not increase the
protein intake with gliadin, gelatine or Zein ?

In conclusion, each constituent of the diet performs its speci-
fic function and must be seriously considered. The carbo-
hydrates are necessary. The fats are valuable. The inorganic
salts are indispensable ; but the newer advance in chemistry of
the diet must come from the proteins.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Socieh

VOLUME XXIX
1913

ISSUED QUARTERLY

PUBUSHED FOR THE SOCIETY

The Seeman Printbet
DUEHAMj N. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Proceedings of the N^. C. Academy of Science 1

Zoo-Geography — C. S. Brim ley 10

Methods for the Preparation of iSTeutral Solutions of Am-
monium Citrate — James M. Bell 28

Geological History of Western JSTorth Carolina — Joseph

Hyde Pratt f 35

Electromotive Force of Silver ISTitrate Concentration of

Cells— /awes M. Bell 45

Annual Address of the President of the I^ational Associa-
tion of Shellfish Commissioners — Joseph Hyde Pratt 50

Lime on Soils — John E. Smith 57

Details of Arrangements and Organization for the Use of
Convict Labor in Road Construction — Joseph Hyde
Pratt 63

The Condensation of Vanillin and Piperonal with Certain

Aromatic Amines — Alvin S. Wheeler 77

Color and Structure in Organic Compounds — W.L.Jejfries 81

Timber Resources of Orange County, IST, C. — /. 8. Holmes 89

Work at the Beaufort Laboratory — W. C. George 94

The Reduction of JSTaphtazarine — Alviyi S. Wheeler and

Chas. 8. Venable 99

PAGE

Convocation Week Meetings of the Scientific Societies .... 105

Abstracts and Eeviews 116

Index to the Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific

Society 120

Index to the Proceedings of the North Carolina Academy

of Science 120

Authors Index of the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scien-
tific Society, Volumes 1-29 121

VOL. XXIX JULY, 1913 No. 1

JOURNAL

OF THE

ELI8HA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C, U. S. A.

TO BE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

E. V. HOWELL, President
P. H. DAGGETT, Vice-President
J, M. BELL, Recording Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

Editors of the Journal:

W. C. COKER

J. M. BELL, - A. H. PATTERSON

CONTENTS

WOE

Proctoedings IST. C, Academy of Science 1

Zoo-Geography — C. S. Brimley .' • • . 10

Methods for the Preparation of IsTeuteal Solutions

OF Ammonium Citrate — James M. Bell 28

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society— Quarterly. Price
$2,00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

VOLUME XXIX JULY, 1913 No. 1

PEOCEEDUs^GS OF THE TWELFTH ANNUAL MEET-
ING OF THE NOETH CAEOLINA ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE HELD AT THE STATE NOEMAL AND
INDUSTEIAL COLLEGE, GEEENSBOEO, N. C,
FEIDAY AND SATUEDAY, APEIL 25-26, 1913.

The Executive Committee met at 2 :40 P. M. Friday, April
26. There were present C. S. Brimley, President, and E. W.
Gudger, Secretary ex ojficio, and by appointment in the ab-
sence of the other regular members, Dr. H. V. Wilson and Prof.
C. W. Edwards. The Secretary made his report as to the state
of finances and membership which was referred to the academy.
An invitation of the faculty of Trinity College, Durham, to
hold the next annual meeting there, was accepted. The follow-
ing were elected to membership :

Briggs, R. W., Professor of Engineering, Trinity College.

Cunningham, Bert, Instructor in Sciences, High School, Durham.

Dixon, Alfred A., Professor of Physics, Guilford College.

Downing, John S., Professor of Chemistry, Guilford College.

George, W. C, Instructor in Zoology, University of North Carolina.

Metcalf, C. L., State Department of Agriculture, Raleigh.

Radcliffe, Lewis, Director, Laboratory of United States Bureau of
Fisheries, Beaufort.

Ragsdale, Virginia, Associate Professor of Mathematics, StateNormal
College.

Rosenkrans, D. B., Instructor in Botany, Agriculture and Mechanical Col-
lege, West Raleigh.

Smith, John E., Instructor in Geology, University of North Carolina.

Swarthout, G. E., Professor of Natural Science, Atlantic Christian Col-
lege, Wilson.

Winters, R. Y., Plant Breeder, North Carolina Agriculture Experiment
Station.

2 Journal of the Mitchell Society [July

The Secretary then read the following letters together with
his reply thereto :

Dr. E. W. Gudgcr,

Secretary, North Carolina Academy of Science,
Greensboro, N. C.
Dear Sir: —

You are doubtless aware that the Ninth International Zoological Con-
gress is to be held in Monaco, March 25th to 29th 1913. I am to attend
the Congress as an official delegate and will sail from New York on
March ist.

If the North Carolina Academy wishes to be represented at this Con-
gress without expense to the Academy, I can act in this capacity should

you so desire.

Respectfully,

C. W. STILES.
Dr. C. W. Stiles,

United States Public Health Service,
Washington, D. C.
Dear Sir: —

You are hereby appointed the official representative of the North
Carolina Academy of Science at the Ninth International Zoological
Congress to be held at Monaco, March 25-29, 1913. This letter will con-
stitute your credentials to the authorities of the Congress.

Very truly yours,

E. W. GUDGER, Secretary.

These were ordered transmitted to the Academy that they
might l)e recorded in the proceedings. There being no further
business, the Committee adjourned.

President Brimley called the Academy to order at 3 P. M.,
14 members being present, and appointed the following com-
mittees :

Auditing— Cokev, W. C, Wolfe, J. J., Metcalf, Z. P.

Besohdions — Hutt, W. N"., George, W. C, Swarthout, G. E.

Nominations — Edwards, C. W., Wilson, H. V., Binford,
Raymond.

The reading and discussion of papers was then begun and
continued until adjournment at 5 :45 when eight had been read.

At 8 :30 P. M. the Academy reassembled in the Physics Lec-
ture Room of the Mclver Memorial Building, when, after a
cordial address of welcome to the College by President J. I.
Foust, President C. S. Brimley of the Academy, delivered his

1913] Proceedings of N. C. Academy of Science 3

presidential address on "Zoo-Geography." The Academy then
adjourned to the reception hall of the Students' Building, where
a reception in their honor was given by the Faculty of the
College.

The Academy met in annual business session at 9 :20 A. M.
Saturday with President Brimley in the chair. The minutes
of last meeting were read and approved, and reports of the
Secretary and of committees were called for.

The Secretary read an invitation from the Greensboro Coun-
try Club, extending to the members of the Academy the cour-
tesies of the Club during their stay in Greensboro. He then
reported that on Jan. 1, 1912, the membership of the Academy
was 85, that 10 members were lost through resignation, re-
moval from the State, or non-payment of dues, but that 5 new
members were elected at the 1912 meeting, making a total for
1912 of 80. By vote of the Academy the Secretary was in-
structed to confer with the Editor of the Mitchell Journal
to see if it would not be possible to publish in the Proceedings
every May a list of the members for the current year.

The Secretary then reported for the Executive Committee
its action of yesterday as to membership and place of next meet-
ing. The l^ominating Committee offered for oflficers for
1913-14: President, Franklin Sherman, Jr., State Entomolo-
gist; Vice-president, Z. P. Metcalf, Professor of Entomology,
Agricultural and Mechanical College; Secretary-Treasurer, E.
W. Gudger, Professor of Biology and Geology State ISTormal
College; for additional members of Executive Committee, W.
C. Coker, Professor of Botany, University of IST. C. ; J. J.
Wolfe, Professor of Biology and Geology, Trinity College; C.
S. Brimley, Xaturalist, Raleigh.

The Auditing Committee announced that the Treasurer's
report as given below is correct. It was read and ordered
printed in the Proceedings:

4 Journal of the Mitchell Society [July

REPORT OF E. W. GUDGER, TREASURER, 1912-13,
APRIL 21, 1913

RECEIPTS

Balance last audit $i93-00

Dues since last audit 84.00

Interest Savings Bank 5.08

Receipts total $282.08

Expenses total Qi-Q^

Balance total $190.12

RESOURCES

Savings bank balance $130.76

Checking bank balance 59-36

Total $190.12

Dues unpaid (about) 25.00

Stamped Envelopes on hand 1.50

$216.12
Less outstanding debts 83.00

Estimated Balance $133-12

Expenses

Printing $ 8.87

Postage 3-14

Typewriting I-IS

Secretary's expenses 1912 meeting 3-8o

Proceedings 1912 75-00

Expenses total $ 91-96

OUTSTANDING DEBTS

Proceedings 1913 $ 75-00

Miscellaneous (about) 8-00

Total $ 83-00

Note transfer of $13.00 from Savings Bank to Checking Account.

The Committee on Kesolutions moved a vote of thanks to
the Faculty of the State E'ormal College for the use of rooms,
and for the reception tendered its members ; to the press of the
city for the excellent manner in which the meeting had been
reported, and to the Country Club for its invitation.

The Committee appointed in 1912 to bring in a report with
recommendations for laws on ventilation of churches, school

1913] Proceedings of N. C. Academy of Science 5

houses, theaters, and other public buildings, was called for.
Chaiiinan Edwards reported progress and asked for further
time, and on motion was instructed to bring in a rej)ort at the
1914 meeting.

At 9 :40 A. M., the reading and discussion of papers was
resumed and continued until the program was finished when
adjournment was had at 1:15 P. M. There were 22 papers on
the program, four of which were read bj title, one by another
member in the absence of its author, and 17 by their authors in
the order as shown on the program. The attendance was 28
out of a membership of 76.

The following is a roster of the members of the Academy for
1913-14. The names of those in attendance at the meeting are
marked with a star:

Addickes, T. W., Assistant Curator, State Museum, Raleigh.
Allen, W. M., State Feed Chemist, Department Agriculture, Raleigh.
*Balcomb, E. E., Professor of Agriculture, State Normal College, Greens-
boro.

*Binford, Raymond, Professor of Biology, Guilford College.
Blanchard, Julian, Professor Elect. Eng., Trinity College, Durham.
Booker, Warren H., Assistant Secretary State Board Health, Raleigh.
Boomhour, J. G., Professor Mathematics, Science, Meredith College,
Raleigh.

Briggs, R. W., Professor Engineering, Trinity College, Durham.
*Brimley, C. S., Naturalist, Raleigh.

Brimley, H. H., Curator State Museum, Raleigh.
*Bruner, S. C, A and M. College, W. Raleigh.

Cain, William, Professor Mathematics, University of North Carolina,

Chapel Hill.
Chrisman, W. G., State Veterinarian, Department Agriculture, Raleigh.
*Clapp, S. C, Orchard and Nursery Inspector, Department Agriculture,
Raleigh.

Cobb, Collier, Professor of Geology, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill.

Coker, R. E., Director U. S. Fisheries Station, Fairport, La.
*Coker, W. C, Prof, of Botany, Univ. of N. C, Chapel Hill.

Collett, R. W., Supt. State Exper. Farms, Swanannoa.
*Cunningham, Bert, Instructor in Sciences, High School, Durham.
*Dixon, A. A., Prof, of Physics, Guilford College.
*Downing, J. S., Prof, of Chemistry, Guilford College.
*Edwards, C. W., Prof, of Physics, Trinity College, Durham.

Ferrell, J. A., Assistant State Board Health, Raleigh.

6 Journal, of the Mitchell Society \_July

Fulton, H. R., Professor Botany and Plant Pathology, A. and M. Col-
lege, W. Raleigh.
*George, W. C, Instructor in Zoology, University of North Carolina,

Chapel Hill.
*Gove, Anna M., Resident Physician, State Normal College, Greensboro.
*Gudger, E. W., Professor Biology and Geology, State Normal College,

Greensboro.
*Hammel, W. C. A., Professor Physics and Manual Arts, State Normal
College, Greensboro.
Harding, W. T., Ii6 W. Jones St., Raleigh.
*Herty, C. H., Professor of Chemistry, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill.
Hobbs, A. Wilson, Graduate Student Johns Hopkins University, Balti-
more.
Holmes, J. S., State Forester, Geology Survey, Chapel Hill.
*Hutt, W. N., State Horticulturist, Department Agriculture, Raleigh.

Ives, J. D., Assistant in Biology, Wake Forest College, Wake Forest.
*Julian, C. A., Assistant Secretary State Board Health, Thomasville.
Kilgore, B. W., State Chemist, Department Agriculture, Raleigh.
Lanneau, J. F., Professor Applied Math, and Astronomy, Wake Forest

College, Wake Forest.
Lay, George W., Rector St. Mary's School, Raleigh.

lyewis, R. H., President North Carolina Association Prevent. Tubercu-
losis, Raleigh.
MacConnell, J. W., Professor Biology, Davidson College, Davidson.
Mclver, Mrs. Chas. D., Spring Garden St., Greensboro.
MacNider, G M., Feed Chemist Department Agriculture, Raleigh.
MacNider, W. de B., Professor Pharmacology, University of North
Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Markham, C. B., Assistant Professor Mathematics, Trinity College,
Durham.
*Mendenhall, Gertrude W., Professor Mathematics, State Normal College,

Greensboro.
*Metcalf, C. L., Entomologist, Department Agriculture, Raleigh.
*Metcalf, Z. P., Professor Entomologist, A. and M. College, W. Raleigh.
Mills, J. E., Consult, and Analyt. Chemist, Columbia, S. C.
Newman, C. L., Professor Agriculture, A. and M. College, W. Raleigh.
Norton, W. C, Asst. in Botany A. and M. College, W. Raleigh.
Patterson, A. H., Professor of Physics, University of North Carolina,

Chapel Hill.
Pegram, W. H., Professor of Chemistry, Trinity College, Durham.
Petty, Mary M., Professor of Chemistry, State Normal College, Greens-
boro.
Poteat, W. L., President and Professor of Biology, Wake Forest Col-
lege, Wake Forest.
*Pratt, J. H., State Geologist, Chapel Hill.
Radcliffe, Lewis, Director Laboratory U. S. Bureau Fisheries, Beaufort.

1913] Proceedings of IST. C. Academy of SciEisrcE 7

Ragsdale, Virginia, Associate Professor of Mathematics, State Normal
College, Greensboro.

Rankin, W. S., Secretary State Board Health, Raleigh.

Robinson, Mary, Assistant in Biology State Normal College, Greensboro.

Rosenkrans, D. B., Instructor Botany, A. and M. College, W. Raleigh.

Shaw, S. B., Department Agriculture, Raleigh.

Sherman, Franklin Jr., State Entomologist, Department Agriculture,
Raleigh.

Shore, C. A., Director State Laboratory Hj'giene, Raleigh.

Smith, J. E., Instructor in Geology, University N. C, Chapel Hill.

Stiles, C. W., Director Marine Hospital, Wilmington.
♦Strong, Cora, Associate Professor of Mathematics, State Normal Col-
lege, Greensboro.
*Swarthout, G. E., Professor Nat. Science, Atlantic Christian College,
Wilson.

Tillman, Opal I., Scientific Assistant Department Agriculture, Raleigh.

Venable, F. P., President University of N. C, Chapel Hill.
*Wheeler, A. S., Associate Professor Organic Chemistry, University N.
C, Chapel Hill.

Williams, L. F., Associate Professor Chemistry, A. & M. College, W.
Raleigh.

*Wilson, H. v.. Professor Zoology, University of North Carolina, Chapel

Hill.
Wilson, R. N., Professor Chemistry, Trinity College, Durham.
♦Winters, R. Y., Plant Breeder, N. C. Agr. Experiment Station, W.

Raleigh.
♦Withers, W. A., Professor of Chemistry, A. & M. College, W. Raleigh.
♦Wolfe, J. J., Professor of Biology and Geology, Trinity College, Durham.

In addition to the presidential address on "Zoo-geographj,"
which is published in the current number of this Jouenal^ the
following papers were presented:

WILL CELLS OF THE EMBRYO SEA URCHIN, WHEN REINTRO-
DUCED INTO THE BODY OF THE ADULT, BECOME
TISSUE CELLS OF THE LATTER

H. V. WILSON

Plasmodia formed by union of lymph cells were allowed to engulf
blastulse, and were grafted on the wound membranes which close in
apertures made in the test of the urchin. The blastulae after certain
changes broke up into their constituent cells. In this way disssociated
embryonic cells were brought into the midst of a developing membrane,
having a very simple histological character. In the actual experiments a
very large proportion of the embryonic cells underwent degeneration.
There was some evidence, though by no means convincing, that groups
of the smaller cells became part of the developing membrane.

8 Journal of the Mitchell Society {^July

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN PADINA

JAS. J. WOLFE

While at work on the life history of Padina at the Fisheries Laboratory
at Beaufort it seemed worth while to test the theory of alternation of gen-
erations in such plants by the cultural methods devised by Hoyt (Bot. Gaz.,
Jan., 1910). Numerous cultures were made during the summer of 1910
and the next — all having but indifferent success. They were repeated in
1912 with somewhat better results. The cultures of Tetraspores produced a
total of 134 male, 154 female, and no tetrasporic plants. Those from
fertilized eggs were somewhat less conclusive. Nevertheless, the evidence
from cultures strongly supports the view that in Padina there is a real
alternation of sporophyte with gametophyte.

GESTATION IN THE NURSE SHARK, GINGLYMOSTOMA
CIRRATUM

E. W. GUDGER
A brief description was given of the breeding habits and of some points
in the embryology of this shark, which was studied at the laboratory of
the Carnegie Institution at Tortugas, Florida, in June and July, 1912.
A brief account has been published in the Year Book for 1912 of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Department of Marine Biology,
pages 148-150.

HYBRIDIZATION EXPERIMENTS ON FROGS

W. C. GEORGE
Chorophilus n. feriarum was crossed with Acris gryllus. About half
of the egg segmented. (In the pure Chorophilus control practically all
the eggs segmented). The development was markedly retarded and was
abnormal. The conspicuous abnormalities concerned the behavior of the
yolk pole. Thus segmentation at this pole was not perfect, and the
closure of the blastopore was interferred with in such wise that there
developed the well known abnormal type produced in so many ways,
characterized by a large blastopore area and the differentiation of the
neural plate.

THE TOXICITY OF COTTONSEED MEAL

W. A. WITHERS, J. E. BREWSTERj L. E. WILLIAMS, AND J. W. NOWELL
WITH THE COLLABORATION OE R. S. CURTIS AND G. A. ROBERTS

The authors conclude from experiments, some of which have been
published :* that the toxicity of cottonseed meal is due to a constituent
and Journal of Biological Chemitry, Volume XIV (1913), pp. 53-58.
group of the proteins, probably one containing loosely bound sulphur.
They suggest some form of iron as an antidote having found with Bel-
gian hares that citrate of iron and ammonia (0.7 gms. daily) is effective

♦rroceedings Society for Promotion Agricultural Science, 1912, pp. 19-21,

1913] Proceedings of IST. C. Academy of Science 9

in overcoming and in preventing cottonseed meal intoxication. Further
experiments are in progress with small animals and with swine. Eflorts
to isolate the toxic substance will be continued.

FISHING FOR SHARKS IN KEY WEST HARBOR

E. W. GUDGER

In this paper the capture was described of a 7-foot, lo-inch male speci-
men of Hypoprion brevirotris and a lo-foot, lo-inch female specimen of
the tiger shark, Galeocerdo tigrinus, in Key West Harbor, in July, 1912.
These two fishes not being very well known, it is proposed later to pub-
lish careful descriptions with exact measurements.

The jaws of the tiger shark, which were exhibited, measured i foot 4
inches straight across, and around the curve of the jaws i foot 9 inches.
Its stomach contained more than a half barrel of miscellaneous material,
including a cow's head (dehorned) minus the lower jaws, the vertebral
column of a sheep, the scutes of a green turtle, the bones and feathers
of two birds, and a lot of tin cans and sea weed. The uteri were dis-
sected, but unfortunately the fish was not in breeding condition.

A SECOND CAPTURE OF THE WHALE SHARK, RHINEODON
TYPUS, IN FEORIA WATERS

E. W. GUDGER

This paper will be published in full in Science.
For the following papers no abstracts have been received :

Some Possible Effects of Solar Rays, (read by title), George W. Lay,

Seasonal Periodicity in the Water Moulds, W. C. Coker.

Vaccination Against Tuberculosis, C. A. Julian.

The Geological History of Western North Carolina, J. H. Pratt.

Action of Ammonia upon Arsenic Iodide, C. H. Herty, & J. T. Dobbins,

A List of the Known Homoptera in North Carolina, Z. P. Metcalf.

The Chestnut Bark Disease, S. C. Bruner.

Serum-Simultaneous Method of Immunizing Hogs Against Cholera.

W. C. Chrisman.
Behavior of the Spermatozoa of the Crab, Raymond Binford.
The Granville Tobacco Wilt Problem, (read by S. C. Bruner), H. R.

Fulton.
The Swamp Lands of Eastern North Carolina, J. H. Pratt.
The Influence of Environment on Reproductive Processes, W. C. Coker.
Survivals and Adaptions along the South Atlantic Coast: A Study in

Anthropegeography, (read by title), Collier Cobb.
A New Interference Apparatus (with a demonstration), C. W. Edwards.
The Closing Up of Lake Basins in Massachusetts, Michigan, and North

Carolina (read by title), Collier Cobb.

E. W. Gudger^ Secretary.

ZOO-GEOGKAPHY*
A Study of Life Zones

BY C. S. BEIMLEY

The intention of this paper is to discuss briefly, first, the
primary life areas of the world, second, the life zones of ]!^orth
America, and thirdly the zoo-geographical divisions of our own
state, l^orth Carolina.

The primary life areas of the world appear to me to be five
in number, namely:

An Australian Realm, consisting of Australia proper, ISTew
Guinea and the adjacent islands as far west as Celebes and Lom-
bok. To these are also added ]^ew Zealand and the islands of
Oceania.

A Neo-tropical Realm., comprising South America, Central
America, the West Indies, and the coasts of Mexico.

An Ethiopian Realm, consisting of Africa south of the Sahara
Desert, southern Arabia, and the island of Madagascar.

An Indian or Oriental Realm, including India, Further In-
dia, part of southern China, and the neighboring islands of the
Malay Archipelago as far east as Borneo and Java.

A Northern Realm, comprising ISTorth America, Europe,
northern and central Asia, and northern Africa, being equiva-
lent to the combined ISTearctic and Palsearctic Realms of Sclater
and later writers.

This is practically the first system ever proposed, that of
Sclater, 1858, with only one alteration, the combining of his
Palaearctic and ISTeartic Realms into a single' ISJ'orthern Realm.
Many systems have been suggested since, these consisting largely
of different groupings of Sclater's original six realms, with or
without the addition of certain others, constructed either of
single islands as in the case of Madagascar, or of groups, as in
the case of Oceania. The Arctic regions have also been set off
as a distinct realm but this does not seem to be a tenable po-
sition as all the Arctic animals belong to families attaining their
full development further south. An Antarctic realm has also

*Presidential address before the North Carolina Academy of Science, Greens-
boro, N. C, April 25, 1913.

10

1913] Zoo-Geography 11

been proposed but that would be characterised only by a single
family of birds, the penguins, and it seems most advisable in
this paper to look upon it as a region of secondary rank, or else
to ignore it altogether. It seems to me also better to treat islands
having a decidedly distinctive fauna as portions of the realm to
v^hich they most nearly approach, rather than to consider them
as distinct, as there are all grades of such islands, and to recog-
nize one opens the way to an almost endless list of meager in-
sular realms.

In this paper the distribution of land vertebrates only will
as a rule be taken into account, and greater weight will be given
to the occurrence of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, than
to that of birds, as the latter, owing to their powers of flight
and migratory habits are less reliable indications of the zoolog-
ical character of a region than the former. Both fishes and
birds will however be used whenever it seems advisable.

As the jSTorthern Realm is distinguished from the group of
four southern realms, more by the lack of the groups peculiar
to them than by the presence of distinctive forms of its own, I
will leave the discussion of its animals to the last, and take up
the southern realms first, in the order in which they have been
previously named. A further reason for this lies in the fact
that after discussing the realms in general, I shall treat the life
zones of Korth America, a portion of the ^NTorthern Realm, and
this arrangement allows me to approach this second part of my
subject in a natural and convenient way.

The Australian Realm comprises not only Australia, ISTew
Guinea, and the neighboring islands as far west as Celebes and
Lombok, but also ISTew Zealand and the islands of Oceania,
which two last may be looked upon as outlying provinces and
taken up later.

It is one of the most sharply characterised of the realms, its
main features being the presence here, and here only, of the egg-
laying mammalia, and the great development of marsupial mam-
mals and elapid serpents to the exclusion of other forms of
these groups, these being represented in Australia only by a few
rodents and bats on the one hand and a few harmless snakes on

12 Journal of the Mitchell Society [July

the other. Its marsupials and other distinctive forms become
mingled with Asiatic species in the islands westward of New
Guinea, hut both marsupials and ostrich-like birds (which here
attain their greatest development) extend up to and including
the islands of Lombok and Celebes, but not across the straits to
Borneo or Java. Side-necked turtles, and lung fishes are also
represented here, as well as in the Neo-tropical and Ethiopian
realms, but no cecilian amphibians.

New Zealand lacks most of the Australian forms, but is re-
markable for the possession of the only living representative of
the reptilian order Ehjnchocephalia, while the islands of
Oceania possess a fauna which, as we might naturally expect,
is so largely composed of birds that they have sometimes been
erected into a zoo-geographical realm under the name of Orni-
thogaea or the bird world.

The Neo-tropical Realm includes South and Central Amer-
ica, the coast lands of Mexico and also the West Indian islands.
The presence of high mountains whose peaks reach above the
snowline and the southward extension of the continent into
cooler latitudes combined with tropical conditions over most of
the realm make a homogeneous fauna impossible, still the whole
realm shows marked distinctions from any other.

New-world monkeys, mormosets, sloths, ant-eaters, arma-
dillos, and true opossums, the only family of pouched mam-
mals found outside Australia, are all peculiar types characteris-
tic of this realm only, while its rodent family Caviidge contains
the largest of all the order, one species, the capybara, reaching
a weight of 100 pounds. Leaf-nosed or vampire bats are found
exclusively here while the fruit bats of the other three southern
realms are absent, as are also terrestrial insectivores. Hollow-
horned ruminants are wholly absent, the hoofed mammals being
represented by deer, tapirs, llamas, and peccaries.

Among birds members of the ostrich family occur, as well as
many peculiar forms, such as the tinamous, toucans, and hum-
ming birds, the last being a highly characteristic and widespread
family.

Orotalid, elapid, and boid snakes are represented in its fauna.

1913] Zoo-Geogeaphy 13

as well as side-necked turtles, liingfislies, and cecilian amphi-
bians. Salamanders are practically absent.

The islands of the Greater Antilles deserve mention as lack-
ing the terrestrial mammals of the neighboring mainlands, its
only prominent forms being the rodent genus, Capromys, and
the insectivorous genus Solenodon.

The Ethiopian Realm includes not only Africa south of the
Sahara Desert, but also the island of Madagascar and southern
Arabia. As the two latter, however, can only be considered
as outlying provinces, and do not exhibit the more prominent
features of the main portion of the realm they will be treated
of separately, and are not included in the statements that im-
mediately follow.

Its characteristic animals are the hippopotamus, giraffe, hyrax
or coney, zebra, rhinoceros, elephant, old world monkeys, great
apes (gorilla and chimpanzee), lemurs, scaly ant-eaters, aard
vark, several families of insectivorous mammals (golden moles,
jumping shrews, and some others), hysenas, ostrich-like birds,
elapid, and boid snakes, side-necked turtles, cecilians or worm-
like amphibians, and lung fishes. The greater number of these
forms are represented in other realms as well, but the first four
mentioned, as well as the aard vark, golden moles and jumping
shrews do not occur elsewhere, ^o bears, deer, nor salamand-
ers of any kind occur. Its main feature, however, is the great
abundance of hoofed mammals, particularly those of the hollow-
horned or antelope family which here attains by far its highest
point, both in number of species and number of individuals.

Of its outlying portions the presence of conies and ostriches
in southern Arabia would seem to indicate Ethiopian affinities,
though most of the continental African forms are lacking.

The island of Madagascar on the other hand has a very pe-
culiar fauna of its own, more than one-half of its mammals be-
longing to the lemur family, while the remainder are largely in-
sectivora not found elsewhere, the large hoofed mammals, and
the carnivora of the mainland being lacking.

The Indian or Oriental Realm comprises southeastern xlsia,

14 Journal of the Mitchell Society IJuly

south of the Himalaya Mountains, as well as the islands of the
Malay Archipelago as far east as Borneo and Java.

It has been combined by some with the Palsearctic and Ne-
arctic realms to form a single Arctogsean Realm, but it appears
to me to have too many southern forms to justify such an ar-
rangement, while others have combined it with the Ethiopian
to form an Indo-African realm but here the lack of too many
of the Ethiopian forms seems to be a sufficient bar to any such
proceeding.

It possesses few peculiar groups of animals, the families
Tupaiidse (tree shrews), Galeopithecidse (flying lemurs),
and Tarsiidse being the most noteworthy among the mammals,
but the majority of its characteristic groups are shared with oth-
er realms, thus its elephants, hyanas, rhinoceros, scaly ant-eaters,
lemurs, old world monkeys, and great apes are represented also
in Africa, though by other species. Its boid snakes, and cecilian
amphibians are similarly found also in both the Ethiopian and
JSTeo-tropical realms. Its bear and deer and most of its in-
sectivorous mammals are otherwise mainly northern groups,
while it j)Ossesses in common with the ISTeo-tropical realm repre-
sentatives of the tapir family. Lung fishes, side-necked turtles,
and ostrich-like birds are absent, while elapid serpents are
present, as they are also in all the other southern realms, being
one of the very few groups found in all four tropical realms,
and not elsewhere, the parrots being the only other vertebrate
group which I can remember as having a similar range.

The Northern Realm comprises all the earth's land surface
lying north of the boundaries of the four southern realms.

It is characterised more by what it lacks than by what it
possesses, few groups of animals being confined exclusively
within its borders.

'No elephants, tapirs, rhinoceros, hippopatamus, giraffes,
conies, no lemurs, monkeys of any kind, nor great apes, no
edentates or marsupials, no egg-laying mammals, hysenas or
cavies, no ostrich-like birds, no alligators, no boid nor elapid
serpents, no side-necked turtles, no cecilian amphibians nor lung
fishes occur, except that in the case of some of these groups a
single species or two intrudes more or less into its limits.

1913] Zoo-Geography 15

Bears, deer, and insectivorous mammalia occur throughout
practically its entire extent, tailed amphibians (salamanders)
are found throughout its temperate regions and here alone.

It appears to me to fall into three natural divisions : —

1. A71 Arctic Region, comprising the circumpolar regions
as far south as the northern limit of the growth of trees.

2. An Eurasian Region, (equivalent to Sclater's Palsearctiii
Realm, with its Arctic portion deducted), comprising Europe,
north Africa, and Asia, north of the Indian Realm.

3. A North American Region (equivalent to Sclater's iJ^e-
arctic Realm less Arctic I^orth America), comprising all JSTorth
America south of the Arctic regions and north of the ISTeo-trop-
ical realm.

The Arctic Region is characterized by the scantiness of its
fauna which is circumpolar for the most part, its most promi-
nent mammalian components being the polar bear, Arctic fox,
Arctic wolf, Arctic hares, reindeer, and musk ox, the last being
American only.

The Eurasian Region possesses the following forms not found
in ISTorth America, though mainly in other regions, in Insecti-
vora, the hedgehogs, in Ungulata, the true oxen and buffaloes,
the pigs, wild goats, and several species of antelopes. In reptiles
it possesses true viperine serpents, and in birds, true flycatchers
(Muscicapidse), bustards (Otidae), old-world warblers (Sylvii-
dse), true larks (Alaudidae) and wagtails (Motacillidse), the
last three families being also very sparingly represented in
America.

The North American Region lacks the above mentioned Eu-
rasian forms and possesses the following peculiar ones : prong-
horn antelope, skunks, o'possum, raccoon, star-nosed mole, mole
shrews, and perhaps a few other mammals. Hoofed animals
are comparatively poorly represented, there being, except
the various deer, only the prong-horn, rocky mountain sheep,
rocky mountain goat, and American bison, the last now nearly
extinct. Among birds the wood warblers, tanagers, mocking
thrushes, new world vultures, tyrant fly catchers and humming-
birds distinguish it from the Eurasian region, but all of them

16 Journal of the Mitchell Society \_July

occur more or less abundantly in the Neo-tropical realm to the
southward. In reptiles it possesses pit vipers but no true vipers,
and among the former the rattlesnakes are exclusively Ameri-
can and predominantly North American. In the Amphibia
its characteristic species belong to the tailed forms among which
the large family Plethodontidse is exclusively North American
while the smaller families of Sirenidse, and Amphiumidse con-
taining the large eel-shaped salamanders are not found else-
where.

THE LIFE ZONES OF NORTH AMERICA

These are more or less parallel belts running across the con-
tinent from east to west, and are limited mainly by the mean
temperature of the region, which in its turn is determined by
the two factors of latitude and elevation. Of course other fac-
tors play a large part in determining the life of these regions,
the most important being the comparative humidity, in fact
this last element splits three of our southerly life zones into two
distinct portions, an eastern or humid division and a western or
arid division.

These life zones are seven in number, the three northern
being cold or boreal in character, while the four southern are
warm or austral. Of course each zone grades into both the one
above and the one below, so that there is never a hard and fast
dividing line between any two contiguous ones, still in spite of
this each zone is fairly well characterized by the forms of life
or by the combination of forms occurring in it.

The transcontinental zones are, —

1. An Arctic Zone, forming the American portion of the
Arctic region, including all the country north of the northern
limit of trees.

2. A Hudsonian Zone, including the northern half of the
boreal forest region.

3. A Canadian Zone, including the southern half of the
boreal forests. These three zones cover by far the greater part
of Canada and enter the United States, mainly along its chief
mountain ranges at high elevations.

1913] Zoo-Geograpiiy 17

4. An Alleghanian Zone, which inciudes, roughly speaking,
the northern United States.

5. An Upper Austral Zone, covering the middle portion of
the United States, and divided into an eastern or humid portion
(the Carolinian district), and a western or arid portion (Upper
Sonoran).

6. A Lower Austral Zone, comprising the southern United
States and the central plateau of Mexico, likewise divided into
an eastern (Louisianian) or humid region, and a western
(Lower Sonoran), or arid region.

1. A Tropical Zone, comprising all south of the Lower
Austral.

The main characteristics of these zones are as follows :

1. The Arctic Zone is distinguished bj an entire absence of
trees, the vegetation consisting of stunted shrubs, low flowering
plants, and lichens. Among the vertebrates, reptiles and amphi-
bians are wholly lacking, while mammals are represented by the
musk-ox, barren ground caribou, arctic hare, several species of
lemmings, arctic fox, and near salt water and on the islands of
the Arctic sea, by the polar bear. On the summits of the Rocky
Mountains and of the Sierras where isolated patches of this
zone occur at high altitudes these are all absent, but pikas,
mountain sheep, and marmots occur at least in summer. Among
the breeding birds of the Arctic zone are the snow geese and
gyrfalcons and quite a number of shore birds. The mean tem-
perature of the six warmest months at the lower edge of this
zone is said to be about 50 F.

2. Tlie Hudsonian Zone is a belt of more or less stunted
timber lying due south of the preceding. Like it, it lacks all
reptiles and amphibians, and also all the characteristic Arctic
mammals as well, this being due not alone to the higher tem-
perature but largely also to the forested character of the coun-
try, which prevents it being congenial to the animals which in-
habit the treeless country further north. For the same reason the
forest loving forms of the north, such as the wolverine, fisher^
marten, Canada lynx, woodland caribou, moose, and black bear

18 Journal of the Mitchell Society [^July

do not range further northward. There seem to be no mammals
peculiar to it and it is chiefly distinguished from the Canadian
zone by what it lacks. Most of its characteristic mammals oc-
cur also on the isolated patches of it which lie on the sides of
the western mountains below timber line. The mean tempera-
ture of the lower edge of this zone during the six warmest
months in the year is said to be about 57 F. From its forested
area, largely consisting of spruces, it is often known as the
Spruce Zone.

3. The Canadian Zone includes the forested region con-
sisting largely of balsams and firs which lies south of the Hud-
sonian, and does not differ from it greatly in character. It,
however, is the most northern zone in which cultivated crops,
such as potatoes, barley, etc., can be raised, and also is the most
northerly zone in which any mammals of presumably southern
origin occur. Thus chipmunks, white-footed mice and wood rats
do not extend their range northward beyond it. Practically all
the mammals mentioned above as belonging to the Hudsonian
zone belong here also and these do not range southward below it
(except the black bear). It possesses a few amphibians, such as
frogs of the genus Rana, and salamanders of the genera Desmog-
nathus and Amblystoma as well as a number of peculiar moun-
tain forms. The temperature of the six warmest months of the
year is estimated to be about 60 F.

4. The Alleghanian Zone includes the white pine forests of
the north and the contiguous regions, and is the most northerly
region having any reptilian fauna. The blue-tailed and fence
lizards, the water, garter, chicken, ground, and green snakes as
well as the copperhead, banded rattlesnake and massasauga do
not extend north of it, nor in mammals do the cottontail rabbit,
common mole, and raccoon, while the starnosed and Brewer's
moles are confined to this zone and the Canadian. Salamanders
attain their highest degree of development in this zone and the
succeeding one.

5. The Upper Austral Zo7ie is a tract of country in which
the trees are mainly deciduous, thus forming a contrast to the
coniferous forests of the north and south, between which it lies.
Among mammals the gray fox, and opossum do not occur above

1913] Zoo-Geography 19

its northern boundary while the woodchuck, red fox, weasel, and
chipmunk do not extend below its southern border. Its reptiles
are much more numerous than those of the Alleghanian, but
far less so than those of the Lower Austral. It divides natur-
ally into an eastern or humid division and a western or arid
one, the former being characterized by an abundance of turtles,
and a scarcity of lizards while the latter has an abundance of
lizards and very few turtles.

6. The Lower Austral Zone comprises roughly speaking the
southern third of the United States and a large part of Mexico.
It is characterized by a great abundance of reptiles and a com-
parative lack of salamanders though certain highly specialized
forms of the latter belong exclusively here. Its distinctive
mammals are the marsh and water rabbits, the cotton rats, and
ricefield rats, and a few others. Its peculiar reptiles are many
and will be mainly listed in the part on the life zones of E'orth
Carolina. The alligator, diamond rattlesnake, and coral snake
are among its more striking representatives in the reptiles.

THE LIFE ZONES OF NORTH CAROLINA

Four of the life zones of North America enter the confines
of our states, these are :

1. The Canadian Zone.

2. The Alleghanian or Transition Zone.

3. The Upper Austral or Carolinian Zone.

4. The Lower Austral or Louisianian Zone.

1. The Canadian Zone occupies the summits of the higher
mountains from about 4,500 feet up, though some of its char-
acteristic forms occur lower down still.

Its mammals are

Cloudland Deer Mouse, above 5,000 feet.
Carolina Ked-backed Mouse, above 4,000 feet.

And there seem to be no other species of general distribution
in the mountains which are confined to this zone, but its breed-
ing birds are more distinctive, these being :

20 Journal of the Mitchell Society [July

Pine Siskin, above 5,000 feet.
American Crossbill, above 5,000 feet.
Winter Wren, above 4,000 feet.
Brown Creeper, above 4,000 feet.
Redbreasted ISTutliatcli, above 5,000 feet.
Chickadee, above 5,000 feet.
Gold crowned Kinglet, above 5,000 feet.
Olive-sided Flycatcher, above 4,000 feet.
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, above 4,000 feet.

The zone has not pecnliar reptiles, those entering it, if any,
being species occurring in the Alleghanian zone below. Its dis-
tinctive amphibians are also few, the most characteristic being
Plethodon metcalfi ; which however, ranges as far down as
3,500 feet, Plethodon shermani and Gyrinopliiliis porphyriticus
also seem to belong to this zone, though the first seems to be a
local form of very limited range, and of the latter we have only
two records, one of them quite unsatisfactory.

The specific points which we are able to include in this zone
from a more or less com]:>lete knowledge of their fauna are,
the Black Mountains in Yancey and Buncombe Counties ; Roan
Mountain, in Mitchell County; Grandfather Mountain in Wa-
tauga County, Pisgah Eidge, and the Balsam Mountains in
Haywood County, the high mountains near Highlands, in Ma-
con County, Tuskwitty Mountain and Waj'ah Bald, also in Ma-
con County. Besides these the mountains along the state line
north of Cherokee County, as far as Roan Mountain, must
possess a Canadian fauna on their summits owing to their ele-
vation and the same is also true of all our mountains not named,
which reach 5,000 feet elevation and over.

2. The Alleghanian Zone occupies the greater part of the
mountain region, its limits extending from about 2,500 feet to
4,500 feet, though many of its characteristic species extend up-
wards into the Canadian, or downwards into the Upper Austral
as well.

The following mammals do not appear to range below this
zone: red squirre'l, woodchuck, starnosed and Brewer's moles,
mole-shrew, masked and smoky shrews, while the opossum.

1913] Zoo-Geography 21

woodchuck, gray squirrel, common deer mouse and common
mole do not occur above it.

With birds the case is quite similar. The scarlet tanager, ■
rosebreasted grosbeak, vesper sparrow, Carolina junco, song
sparrow, Baltimore oriole, Oaims, Canadian, blackthroated
green, blackburnian, golden-winged, and chestnut-sided war-
blers, Bewck's wren, warbling vireo, Wilson's thrush, least fly-
catcher and ruffed grouse not ranging below it, while the Caro-
lina wren, crow, tufted tit, bluegraj gnatcatcher, bro^^^l thrasher,
yellowthroated vireo, Kentucky warbler, summer tanager, field
sparrow, acadian flycatcher, and redbellied woodpecker do not
pass beyond its upper limits. Xot all of either class however
ranges throughout its whole extent, a noteworthy exception
being the Carolina junco, which is essentially a bird of the
Canadian zone, but ranges in diminished numbers down to 3,000
feet, or about half way through the Alleghanian zone, and there
are many similar instances.

In reptiles the milk snake alone appears to be confined to
this zone, but the ring-necked snake, banded rattlesnake, garter
snake, northern water snake, black chicken snake, black snake,
fence lizard, blue-tailed lizard, and perhaps others also occur
here as well as in the warmer zones below, and some of them
may enter the Canadian zone above.

Its characteristic amphibians are wholly salamanders, the
most widely distributed being the mountain triton (Desmog-
nathus 4:-macuIatus) which occur in small streams throughout its
whole extent. Another species is the round-tailed triton (Des-
mognaihus achrophea) which though ranging in diminished
numbers down to 3,000 ft. reaches its greatest abundance in
the Canadian zone above. Daniel's triton (Spelerpes danielsi)
and Schenck's triton (Spelerpes schencki), the former a rare,
the latter a common, species seem to be confined to this zone.
The viscid salamander extends upwards through this zone to
about 3,500 ft. at which elevation it is replaced by Metcalf's
salamander.

3. The Upper Austral or Carolinian Zone. This includes the
central portion of the state, West and North of a line drawn

22 Journal of the Mitchell Society \_July

from a little West of Weldon, and thence through Raleigh to
Charlotte. Its general western fboundaries are the western
limits of Surry, Wilkes, Caldwell, and Burke counties, some
of all of which lie outside its limits. McDowell lies half in
and half out of the zone, while Henderson is almost wholly
outside and Polk almost wholly inside. Besides this it includes
the mountain valleys below a:bout 2,500 ft. the principal of them
being those of the Hiwasee in Cherokee County, of the Little
Tennessee in Graham, Swain, and Macon Counties, of Pigeon
River in Haywood, and last but not least of the French Broad
in Madison, Buncombe, Henderson, and Transylvania Counties.

Less collecting, especially if we exclude birds, has been done
in our state in this zone than in any other, but fortunately what
has been done has been largely near its edges and shows toler-
ably well how it differs from the zones above and below. Its
faunal characteristics are furthermore much influenced by the
comparative low latitude in which our portion of it lies so that
we have an intrusion of certain Lower Austral forms and an
exclusion of others which further north are characteristic of
this zone.

We can define this zone but little by its mammalian fauna,
still the golden mouse ranges throughout it but not above it,
while the chipmunk, weasel, meadow mouse, jumping mouse,
common deer mouse and muskrat, are also widely distributed
forms whose range is largely defined by its southern border.

In birds the mocking bird, prairie warbler, pine warbler,
yellowthroated warbler, blue grosbeak, brownheaded nut-hatch
and Bachman's sparrow all occur more or less commonly up to
its upper edge, the last four being normally Lower Austral
species, while on the other hand the whippoorwill, robin, gold-
finch, and yellow warbler do not range to any extent below its
southern limits.

In reptiles it possesses one peculiar species, the brown king
snake, a serpent of very limited distribution, but several do
not range above it, these being the southern green snake, com-
mon king snake, Valeria's snake, ground lizard, and sand lizard.
The black chicken snake, queen snake, and painted turtle do

1913] Zoo-Geography 23

not seem to extend their range mucli if any beyond its southern
limits, while the northern water snake, although normally not
occurring below this zone, ranges in this state throughout the
Lower Austral also.

Among amphibians, the spotted salamander, marbled sala-
mander and Holbrook's triton occur throughout it but not
above its upper boundary, while the range of the pickerel frog
does not extend below its southern limits.

From the Lower Austral it is mainly distinguished by the
absence of the long list of reptiles and amphibians occurring in
that zone and not above it. Some of these however enter the
Upper Austral along its southern border, thus we have the
green lizard recorded from Tryon in Polk County, and Albe-
marle in Stanley County, while the glass snake has been taken
at Statesville. Other records of Lower Austral forms possibly
still more surprising are of the lubber grasshopper near Con-
cord in Cabarrus County, and a true scorpion at Tryon in
Polk County.

4. Lower Austral Zone, includes the remainder of the state,
namely all lying south and east of a line drawn from near Wel-
don to Ealeigh, and thence to Charlotte, and it may be as well
to give some idea of how we came to locate the line. In the
first place, Raleigh, where the fauna is known in its entirety
for all practical purposes, has a thoroughly mixed fauna and
can hardly be placed in either zone, thus both the whippoorwill
and chuckwillswidow, one typically Upper, and the other typi-
cally Lower Austral, both occur and breed. Other Upper
Austral breeding birds are the robin, goldfinch, mountain
vireo, and yellow warbler, while the prothonotary warbler, a
Lower Austral form, barely reaches Raleigh. In reptiles we
have here the following Upper Austral species: brown king
snake, queen snake, black chicken snake, northern water snake,
and painted terrapin, and these Lower Austral forms : glass
snake, com snake, southern water snake, cottonmouth, red-
bellied water snake, crowned tantilla, red king snake, scarlet
snake, and two species of terrapin {Pseudemys concinna and
P. scripta). In amphibians the balance also turns to the Lower

24 Journal of the Mitchell Society [July

Austral as the ditch eel (Amphiuma means), dwarf salamander
and narrow-mouthed toad are all common, while the Upper
Austral pickerel frog is only tolerably so. In mammals its
Lower Austral forms are the cotton rat and Carolina mole-
shrew, both of which may very likely range considerably into
the Upper Austral in this state, while of Upper Austral forms,
the chipmunk is common a few miles west of Raleigh, but not
at Raleigh, while the meadow mouse, common deer mouse,
muskrat, jumping mouse and weasel are all common except the
last two.

Hence we see Raleigh rather leans to the Upper Austral on
birds and mammals, and to the Lower on reptiles and amphi-
bians, and is plainly an intermediate point so we draw the line
right through it, then knowing that the line must necessarily
slant northward towards the coast, we draw it straight to Wel-
don, having records of the occurrence of typical Lower Austral
forms just east of that place. To the south we find that South-
ern Pines with records of the scarlet snake, coachwhip, corn
snake, narrowmouthed toad, crowned tantilla, and red-cockaded
woodpecker ought to be placed well within the line, which is
confirmed by the occurrence of the green lizard at Carthage a lit-
tle to the north, and of the coral snake at Montrose to the south.
So we draw the line above Southern Pines, and then finding
records of such species as the green lizard in Stanly County,
and the lubber grasshopper in Cabarrus County which latter
record is offset by the presence of the chipmunk, at the same
place, indicating a mixed fauna, we continue it through these
counties to Charlotte and thence to the state line in the same
general direction.

The animals which we have considered as characterising the
Lower Austral Zone in this state are as follows :

1. Mammals

Marsh Rabbit (Lepus palustris).
Southern Fox Squirrel.
Cotton Rat (Sigmodon hispidus).
Ricefield Rat (Oryzomys palustris).
Cotton Mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus).

1913] Zoo-Geography 25

Carolina Mole Shrew (Blarina carolinensis).
Southern Shrew (Sorex longirostris).
Big-eared Bat (Corinorhinus macrotis).

2. Birds (occurrence in the breeding season only taken into con-
sideration).*

a Land Species.

fChuck- wills-widow.

Eed-cockaded Woodpecker.

Prothonotary Warbler.

Swainsons Warbler.

Nonpareil or Painted Bunting.
h Shore and Water Birds.

American Egret.

Snowy Egret.

Florida Cormorant.

Louisiana Heron.

Little Blue Heron.

Boat-tailed Grackle.

3. Reptiles.

Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis).
Florida Terrapin (Pseudemys floridana).
Mobile Terrapin (Pseudemys mobilensis).
Yellow-bellied Terrapin (Pseudemys scripta).
Smooth Terrapin (Pseudemys concinna).
Diamond Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus).
Ground Rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius).
Cottonmouth Mocassin (Ancistrodon piscivorus).
Coral Adder (Elaps fulvius).
Crowned Tantilla (Tantilla coronata).
Rainbow Snake (Abastor erythrogrammus).
Horn Snake (Farancia abacura).
Southern Hog-nosed Snake (Heterodon simus).
Striped Chicken Snake (Coluber quadrivittatus).

*The following bii'ds usuallly considered as typically Lower Austral forms
range in this state throughout the Tapper Austral also and help to define it
as opposed to the next more northern zone, the Alleghanian : blue grosbeak,
Bachman's sparrow, brown-headed nuthatch and yellow-throated warbler.

26 Journal of the Mitchell Society [July

Corn Snake (Coluber guttatus).

Ked King Snake (Ophibolus doliatus cocoineus).

Scarlet Snake (Cemophora coccinea).

Pied Water Snake (l^atrix taxispilota).

Southern Water Snake (ITatrix fasciata fasciata).

Red-bellied Water Snake (Natrix fasciata erythrogastra) .

Coachwliip (Bascanium flagellum).

Brown-headed Snake (Rhadinaea flavilata).

Glass Snake (Ophisaurus ventralis).

Green Lizard (Anolis carolinensis) .

4. Amphibians.

Mud Eel (Siren lacertina).

Southern Water Dog (Necturus punctatus).

Ditch Eel (Amphiuma means).

Dwarf Salamander (Manculus quadridigitatus).

Margined Salamander ( Stereochilus marginatus).

ISTarrow-mouthed Toad (Engystoma carolinense) .

Dwarf Toad (Bufo quercicus).

Pine-woods Tree Frog (Hyla femoralis).

Squirrel Tree Frog (Hyla squirrella).

Carolina Tree Frog (Hyla cinerea).

5. Fish.

A Top Minnow (Heterandria formoso).
Ditch Fish (Chologaster cornutus).
Everglade Perch (Elassoma evergladei).
Swamp Darter (Copelandellus quiescens).

ISTot all of these species range throughout the whole zone, a
great many of them not appearing to occur further north than
l^euse River, while others again seem to be confined to the
coastal region though ranging throughout the whole extent of
that, in fact, there are all sorts of irregularities in the distribu-
tion of these species. Those confined to the coastal region are
the following: rainbow snake, horn snake, striped chicken
snake, diamond rattlesnake, pied water snake, mud eel, all
the three tree frogs mentioned, all four fishes, probably the cot-
ton mouse, and the water and shore birds mentioned. Those ap-

1913] Zoo-Geography 27

parently extending their ranges nortli of l^euse River are coacli-
wliip snake, ground and diamond rattlesnakes, nonpareil, Flori-
da cormorant, coral snake, and some others, but our data with
regard to many of the species is so meager that we cannot draw
any definite conclusions from it.

In part of the zone lying north of ]!^euse River there appears
to he a much greater admixture of Upper Austral forms than
further south ; in fact, south of that line we meet with only scat-
tering examples of species belonging to the more northern zone.
Thus the localities lying on or above Neuse River (excluding
Raleigh) give a total of 49 Lower Austral records, to 18 Upper
Austral, while those localities southward give only 5 Upper
Austral records to a total of 95 Lower Austral, thus showing a
much greater intermingling as we go northward which is just
what we ought to expect, as no life area is ever homogenous,
but gradually blends on the borders with the adjoining ones
or areas, consequently the boundaries we draw between
any two contiguous zones are largely arbitrary, and if we drew
maps to record things exactly as they are we would cause the
colors of adjoining zones to gradually blend the one into the
other just as their fauna actually blends.

Raleigh, N. C.

METHODS FOR THE PREPARATION OF NEUTRAL
SOLUTIONS OF AMMONIUM CITRATE^

BY JAM?^S M. BELL AND CHARLES F. COWELL

The method at present approved hj the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists^ for the preparation of neutral solutions
of ammonium citrate requires the use of an alcoholic solution of
corallin as indicator. It is common knowledge that this method
is not accurate. The method proposed bj Hand,^ using purified
litmus solution, has been thoroughly tried by Patten and Robin-
son'* and like the corallin method has proven much less satis-
factory than the conductivity method proposed by Hall and
Bell.^ By this conductivity method a series of solutions is
prepared containing constant quantities of citric acid and vari-
able quantities of ammonia in a constant volume. It was found
that the solution just neutral has the highest electrical con-
ductivity, the plot for conductivity and quantity of ammonia
consisting of two curves intersecting at the neutral point. Up
to that point the solutions consist of mixtures of ammonium
citrate and free citric acid, and beyond the break the solutions
consist of mixtures of ammonium citrate and free ammonia.

The conductivity method requires some temperature control,
for the temperature coefficient of conductivity is large enough
to cause serious errors in the final result unless the maximum
variations in temjDerature are but very slight. Two further
methods are here presented for the determination of the neutral
point, neither of which requires careful temperature regulation.
In one method there is an indirect determination of the excess
of ammonia just past the neutral point by the use of chloroform
as solvent. This method is called the "extraction method." The
second method like the conductivity method is a i^hysical method
depending on the great heat evolution when ammonia and citric
acid solutions are mixed. This has been called the "tempera-
ture method."

"Reprinted from The Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXV.
No. 1. January, 1913.

^Bureau of Chemistry, BvU. 107 (revised), 1.
^Bureau of Chemistry, Bull. 132, 11.
V. Ind. Eng. Chem., 4, 443 (1912).
V. Am. Chem. Soc, 33, 711. (1911.)

28

1913] Solutions of Ammonium Citrate 29

1. Extraction Method. — Ammonia is soluble to a slight extent
in chloroform ; citric acid and ammonium citrate are insoluble
in chloroform. This fact affords an accurate method of esti-
mating the excess of ammonia in an aqueous solution of these
substances. The distribution ratio of ammonia between chloro-
form and water has been shown by Bell and Feild^ to be about
1 :25 at ordinary temperatures ; that is, between equal volumes
of water and chloroform, free ammonia will distribute itself
about ^/2« in the chloroform layer and "'/^g in the water layer.

A citric acid solution containing 370 grams per liter Avas pre-
pared. To 100 cc. lots of this solution varying amounts of strong
ammonia were added and the resulting solutions diluted to200cc.
This addition was made through a narrow tube leading into the
acid so as to avoid losses of ammonia by volatilization. Of this
solution lOOcc. were shaken out with 125cc. of chloroform and
50cc. of this chloroform layer to which about 50cc. of water
were added was titrated against 0.1 N hydrochloric acid solution
using methyl red as indicator. During this titration all the
ammonia passed from the chloroform layer to the water layer as
it was neutralized by the acid. In these determinations only
a part of the total excess of ammonia is estimated, but knowing
what fraction is taken, the total excess of ammonia may be esti-
mated. For each gram of free ammonia left in 100 cc. of the
water layer after shaking out, there is 0.04 gram in 100 cc. of
the chloroform layer or 0.05 gram in 125 cc. of the chloroform
layer. Hence, of the total excess of ammonia in the sample V»
is in the 125 cc. of chloroform. In 50 cc. there are '/^'^ of the
portion, shaken out and as only half of the total is shaken out
there is Vio5 of the total excess of ammonia actuallv titrated.

TABLE

I

0.1

N

HCl; required to

Ammonia solution

used.

net

itralize

50 cc. chloroform extract.

Cc.

Cc.

40.5

1.50

40.2

0.97

40.0

0.47

39-8

0.22

39-5

0.00

«</. Am. Chem. Soc, 33, 940 (1911j.

30

JOUEISTAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY

\_July

59.5 40.0

Total cc, ammonia added.

•Fig. I.

40.5

The proportion in which the citric acid and ammonia solu-
tions must he mixed to give a solution exactly neutral may be

found by a graphic method.
In Fig. 1 the number of
cc. of ammonia added is
abscissa and the number
of cc. of acid required to
neutralize the excess of
ammonia in 50 cc. of the
chloroform layer is ordi-
nate. By extrapolating it
is seen that 39.7 cc. of
ammonia solution would
just neutralize the amount
of the citric acid solution
employed. 'No trace of
free ammonia was found
in any of the solutions to
which 39.5 cc. or less of the ammonia solution had been added.
When as much as 40.0 cc. had been added, the free ammonia
could be detected by odor and these solutions showed increasing
amounts of ammonia in the titrations. The solution containing
39.8 cc. of ammonia contained very little free ammonia, for 50
cc. of the chloroform extract required only 0.22 cc. of the acid. It
will be seen that this method will indicate the proportions in
which the solutions of ammonia and citric acid must be mixed
with at least the accuracy which is possible in the ordinary com-
parison of an acid and base by buret readings.

II. Temperature Method. — The second method here present-
ed for the preparation of a neutral solution of ammonium
citrate, like the conductivity method, is a physical method. Tt
was suggested by the fact that, during the addition of the first
35 cc. of ammonia to the citric acid in the former method, so
much heat was developed that the solution had to be cooled at
least twice during the mixing. After the neutral point is reach-
ed, there is no appreciable heat effect due to further additions
of ammonia.

1913] Solutions of Ammonium Citrate 31

The experiments were carried out in a Dewar flask of about
200 cc. capacity, provided with a platinum stirrer and a ther-
mometer graduated to tenths of degrees. The citric acid and
ammonia solutions were the same as those used in the former
method. Again, 100 cc. of citric acid solution was partially
neutralized with 36 cc. of ammonia solution in an ordinary
beaker. The cooled solution was then poured into the Dewar
flask. The beaker was washed several times with water and
the washings poured into the Dewar flask, so that the final vol-
ume of solution was about 150 cc. Just as in the previous

TABI

.E II

Total ammonia added.

Cc.

Temperature.

36.0

21.50°

36.5

21.88

37-0

22.25

37.5

22.62

38.0

23.04

38.S

23.40

39-0

23.70

39-S

24.12

40.0

24.28

40.5

24.30

41.0

24.30

42.0

24.32

45-0

24.32

method, the ammonia solution was added from a buret provided
with a small delivery tube, which extended to the bottom of the
flask. Ammonia was now added in portions of 0.5 cc. and the
mixture stirred for about I/2 minute. After IY2 minutes no
further rise of temperature was noticed. After each addi-
tion of 0.5 cc. of ammonia there was a constant rise of
temperature of about 0.40° until the buret reading was
39.50 cc. of ammonia. For the next 0.5 cc. of ammonia
the rise of temperature was only 0.16°. Beyond 40
cc. practically no change in temperature occurred. The
neutral point is therefore between 39.5 cc. and 40 cc. of am-
monia. The exact neutral point is found by plotting tLe
curve, using the number of cc. of ammonia as abscissa and the

32

JOTJENAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY

[July

rise of temperature as ordinate. This point is found to be
39.7 cc, tlie same reading as was found by the extraction
method.

The "temperature method" was further confirmed by its use
with solutions of sulphuric acid and ammonia, both about twice
normal. The rise of temperature, taken with the same thermo-

24.5

24.0

J^

23.5

r

23.0

22.5

22.0

\

21 .S

/

36.0

38.0 40.0 42.0

Total ec. ammoaia added.
Fig. 2.

44.0

meter, as before, was constant until the neutral point was
reached. The results obtained are given in Table III and the
neutral point agrees exactly with that found by the direct
titration of the ammonia against the acid.

TABLE III

Cc. Ammonia added to 40 cc. acid.

Temperature.

38.5 27.62°

39.0 27.70

39-5 27.79

40.0 27.88
40. 5 27.96

40.1 28.05
41-5 28.05
42.0 28.01
42.5 27.98
43-0 27.95

1913] Solutions of Ammonium Citkate 33

Both methods here presented are for the determination of the
proportion in which ammonia and citric acid must be mixed to
arrive at a neutral solution. These proportions vary of course
with the strength of the separate solutions. From the proportion
found large quantities of neutral ammonia citrate may be pre-
pared, after which the solution may be diluted to the required
density.

SUMMARY

In this paper two methods are proposed for the determination
of the end point in the titration of a weak acid by a weak base,
where the ordinary indicators fail. In the first method an index
of the excess of ammonia is obtained by shaking out with chloro-
form and by titrating the chloroform with a dilute acid. In
the second method the rise in temperature due to the heat of
neutralization is observed as the titration proceeds, the end
point being at the break in the heating curve. Both these me-
thods are simpler than the method formerly proposed where the
conductivities of solutions must be determined at constant tem-
perature.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

VOL. XXIX OCTOBER, 1913 No. 2

JOURNAL

OF THE

ELI8HA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C, U- S. A.

TO BE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFJCE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

E. V. HOWELL, President
P. H. DAGGETT, Vice-President
J. M. BELL, Recording Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

Editors of the Journal:

W. C. COKER

J. M. BELL, - A. H. PATTERSON

CONTENTS

Geological Histokt of Westekjt North Carolina —

Joseph Hyde Pratl , 35

Electromotive Force of Silver Kitrate Ooncentra-

TiOK- OF Cells — James M. Bell], Ale:^-n'nJ'''r L. Feild 45

A ^^iMUAL Address of the President of hie National
Association of Shellfish Commissioners^ ISTor-
FOLK, Va., ilpRiL 23. Idld—Joseph Hyde Pratt. . . . 50

Lime on Soils — John E. Smith 57

Journal cff the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society— Quarterly. Price
$2,00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
Unirersitj' of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C

JOURNAL

OF THE

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

VOLUME XXIX OCTOBER. 1913 No. 2

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF WESTEEIST IN^ORTH
CAROLINA

BY JOSEPH HYDE PEATT

The State of North Carolina is divided into three physio-
graphic divisions, which have been designated as the Coastal
Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, and Mountain region. That
part of the state lying to the west of the Blue Ridge is in the
Mountain Region. This includes the Blue Ridge and the Great
Smokies and the country between, which is cut across by numer-
ous cross ranges separated by narrow valleys and deep gorges.
The average elevation of this region is about 2,700 feet above
the sea level, but the summits of a great many ridges and
peaks are over 5,000 feet, while a considera:ble number of
peaks have a height of over 6,000, the highest of which is Mount
Mitchell with an elevation of 6,711 feet. Over the larger part
of this region are to be found the older crystalline rocks,
gneisses, granites, schists and diorites that are pre-Cambrian age
which are greatly folded and turned on their edges. On the
western and eastern borders of this mountain region, approxi-
mately along the line of the Blue Ridge and Great Smokies,
there are two narrow belts of younger sedimentary rocks, con-
sisting of limestones, shales, and conglomerates, and their meta-
morphosed equivalents, marbles, quartzites, and slates of Cam-
brian age.

The sedimentary rocks have been formed from sand, gravel,
and mud which have been deposited as the result of alteration
and erosion of the older rocks.

By the present position of the rocks we are able to obtain
records regarding the order in which the rocks of western iSTorth

35

36 JOUENAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY [OctoheV

Carolina were formed, and thus obtain a geological history of
the mountain section. All the rocks of western JSTorth Carolina
are amongst the oldest geologic formations, although there is
considerable variation in the time at which the various rocks
encountered were formed. The oldest rock formation is known
as the Carolina gneiss, which consists of large areas of mica
and granite schists; and mica, granite, and cjanite gneisses.
The exact origin of this rock has not been definitely determined ;
it may have resulted from the metamorphism of a granite rock.
Mount Mitchell and the other mountain peaks of the Black
Mountains 'are of Carolina gneiss, as are also Grey Beard, The
Craggies, Sunset Mountain, Pisgah, Great Hogback (Toxa-
way), and Standing Indian (Clay County).

The next oldest rock formation of western IlTorth Carolina is
known as the Eoan gneiss, which is not as extensive as the Car-
olina gneiss, but forms much smaller areas and, as a rule, forms
long narrow bands cutting the Carolina gneiss. They are also
much less altered and are undoubtedly younger. Roan, High
Knob, Big Yellow Mountain, Cocks Knob, the eastern slope of
Craggy Dome and Bull Head Mountain, ITofat Mountain, and
part of Caesar's Head, are all of Roan gneiss. These mountains
are, therefore, younger formations than those mountains com-
posed of Carolina gneiss.

Another granite formation has been intruded into the Caro-
lina and Roan gneisses, forming rather small areas in the north-
western portions of the mountains. These granites, known as
the Cranberry and Beech granites, are observed in the vicinity of
Blomng Rock, Beech Mountain, Rich Mountain, and part of
Pumpkin Patch Mountain. A similar granite, known as the
Henderson granite and of approximately the same age, is found
over a considerable area of southeastern portion of Transyl-
vania and Henderson counties and southwestern portions of
Buncombe County.

All these rocks referred to above are of deep-seated origin
and the lapse of time between the formation of the different
ones was undoubtedly very great. They formed mountain
ranges that were much higher than now observed, but these have

1913] GeologiCx^l History of Westekis^ K. C. 37

been subject to erosion which has brought them to their present
outline.

The next formation was the lava rocks, which were poured
forth upon the surface of the Archean rocks. These lava flows
are of considerably later period than the granites and gneisses
and are older than the overlying Cambrian sedimentary rocks,
and they may belong to the Algonkian age. Some of these rocks
were undoubtedly of volcanic nature, the intrusions coming to
the surface as flows of lava and sj)reading out over the Carolina
and Roan gneisses and the Cranberry and Beech granites. There
was a very long interval between the formation of the last of
the Archean rocks before the volcanic activity ; and during this
period these old Plutonic rocks were subject to very excessive
erosion. This volcanic activity probably extended into the
Cambrian time, and many of the lava flows were probably at
the surface when the Cambrian strata were laid down. The
indication of this is the finding of sheets of basalt conglomerate
interstratified with the lower strata of the Cambrian. Rocks of
this period include meta-diabase, found just north of Linville
and to the east in Grandmother Gap and crossing the Yonah-
lossee road at several places; blue and green epidotic schists,
which have been probably altered from basalt, such as are to be
seen in the vicinity of Pineola and Montezuma, Avery County,
and Hanging Rock, Caldwell County; a gray and black schist
probably formed by the alteration of an andesitic rock, which is
to be observed on Flat Top Mountain and Pine Ridge, Watau-
ga County; and metarhyolite, such as is found on the slopes of
Dugger Mountain, Sampson Mountain, and in Cook's Gap, Wa-
tauga County.

These Archean rocks, with the volcanic formations, were then
subjected to a long period of erosion, and the sea at the same
time encroached upon large areas of the dry land. The sedi-
ments deposited formed the rocks which are known as the Cam-
brian. Portions of the Archean rocks were submerged and at
times uplifted, and there was not a continuous series of these
sedimentary deposits.

These sedimentary rocks, formed from the erosion of the
Archean and Algonkian rocks and from siliceous and calcareous

38 Journal of the Mitchell Society [October

material deposited from animal life fomid in the sea, consist of
conglomerates, sandstones, shale, limestone, and their metamor-
phic equivalents, quartzite, slate, and marble. These are ob-
served very extensively over considerable areas of western E^orth
.Carolina, but principally, as stated above, near the western and
eastern sections of the mountain region. Grandfather Mountain
is composed of one of these conglomerates of Cambrian age, as is
also Grandmother Mountain, a large part of the area around
Linville, and just to the east of Pineola. A narrow strip of these
rocks is to be found extending across the extreme western part
of Buncombe County, across Henderson and Transylvania
counties. Brevard is situated in an area of these rocks, as is
also Boylston, Mills River, and Fletcher, Henderson County.
Practically all of Cherokee and Graham counties is composed
of Cambrian rocks and the western parts of Clay, Macon, and
Haywood counties. Swain County is composed largely of these
Cambrian rocks, with the exception of an area of Archean rock
that is exposed around Bryson and for some distance to the
northeast. West of Asheville these Cambrian rocks are ob-
served in the vicinity of Stackhouse, Hot Springs, and Paint
Rock. They include all the limestones, such as are being mined
at Fletchers, Mills River, and other places in Henderson and
Transylvania counties; the limestones of Madison County;
and the marbles of Cherokee, Graham, and Swain counties.

From the above it will be seen that the larger jDart of the area
of western jSTorth Carolina is composed of the Archean rocks,
reiDresenting the oldest rock formations.

Associated with the rocks described above are various min-
erals of economic importance, the history of which may be of
interest in connection with the geological history of western
North Carolina. The precious metals occur very sparingly in
nearly all the counties of this section of the state, and in only a
very few places has any attempt been made to systematically
produce them, and this has been largely by placer mining.
Both the rocks of the Archean and Cambrian age apparently
contain minute quantities of gold, but in none of these have de-
posits been found of sufficient richness to be profitably mined.
In the early history of western !N'orth Carolina it was customary

1913] Geological History of Western X. C. 39

for many of the inhabitants to pan the various streams for gold
and to pay their taxes in native gold. Just how much gold has
been taken from western Xorth Carolina in this way is not
kno'wn; but it evidently runs up into several hundred thousands
of dollars.

Iron was discovered in western Xorth Carolina almost as soon
as the country began to be settled, and the manufacture of iron
dates back before the Revolutionary War. These early iron
works consisted of the primitive Catalan forge blo^vn by the
water trompe. Such forges were in operation in Ashe, Mitchell,
and Cherokee counties, and as late as 1893 one of these, the
Pasley forge on Helton Creek in Ashe County, was in operation.
These early forges supplied iron for all local uses and the forges
in Cherokee County shipped a good deal into Tennessee. The
most celebrated iron mine of western K'orth Carolina is the
Cranherry, and this iron was worked in Catalan forges as early
as 1820. The following facts regarding the Cranberry iron may
be of interest :

*"Cranberry Bloomery Forge, on Cranberry Creek; built in 1820; rebuilt
in 1856; two fires and one hammer; made 17 tons of bars in 1857.

"Toe River Bloomery Forge, situated 5 miles south of Cranberry
forge; built in 1843; two fires and one hammer; made about 4 tons of
bars in 1856.

"Johnson's Bloomery Forge, 6 miles east of south from Cranberry;
built in 1841; had two fires and one hammer; made 1Y2 tons of bars
in 1856."

This ore made an excellent quality of iron and soon became
known and attracted a great deal of attention throughout the
United States. Since 1882 the mine has been worked almost
continuously. Similar grades of iron ore are found in Ashe
County, and .the following is a summary of the history of the
Catalan forges that were operated on these Ashe County mag-
netic ores :

"The Pasley forge was built by John Ballou at the mouth of Helton
Creek in 1859; in 1871 it was rebuilt by the present owner, W. J. Pasley,
and is now sadly in need of repairs.

"Hehon Bloomery Forge, on Helton Creek, 12 miles N. N. W. of Jef-

*From "The Iron Manufacturer's Guide," 1859, by J. P. Leslie.

40 Journal of the Mitchell Society \_Odoher

ferson; built in 1829; two fires and one hammer; made in 1856 about 15
tons of bars. Washed away in 1858. Another forge was built i^ miles
lower down on the creek in 1802, but did not stand long.

"Harbard's Bloomery Forge was situated near the mouth of Helton
Creek; built in 1807 and washed away in 1817.

"Ballou's Bloomery Forge was situated 12 miles N. E. of Jefferson, at
the falls of North Fork of New River; built in 1817; washed away in
1832 by an ice freshet.

"North Fork Bloomery Forge was situated on North Fork of New
River, 8 miles N. W. of Jefferson; built in 1825; abandoned in 1829;
washed away in 1840.

"Laurel Bloomery Forge, on Laurel Creek, 15 miles west of Jefferson;
built in 1847; abandoned in 1853.

"New River Forge, on South Fork of New River, yi mile above its
junction with North Fork; built in 1871; washed away in 1878."

The brown hematite ores of Cherokee County which occur in
the Cambrian rocks were worked in forges as early as 1840,
suiDplying the surrounding country with bar iron. We have
record of the following forges:

"Lovingood Bloomery Forge, situated on Hanging Dog creek, 2 miles
above Fain forge; built from 1845 to 1853; two fires and one hammer;
made in 1856 about 13 tons of bars.

"Lower Hanging Dog Bloomery Forge, on Hanging Dog Creek, 5 miles
northwest from Murphy; built in 1840; two fires and one hammer; made
in 1856 about 4 tons of bars.

"Killian Bloomery Forge, situated ^ mile below the Lower Hanging
Dog forge; built in 1843; abandoned in 1849.

"Fain Bloomery Forge, on Owl Creek, 2 miles below the Lovingood
forge; built in 1854, two fires and one hammer; made in 1856 about 24
tons of bars.

"Persimmon Creek Bloomery Forge, situated on Persimmon Creek, 12
miles southwest from Murphy; built in 1848; two fires and one hammer;
made in 1855 about 45 tons of bars.

"Shoal Creek Bloomery Forge, situated on Shoal Creek, 5 miles west
of the Persimmon Creek forge; built about 1854; one fire and one
hammer; made in 1854 about J4 ton of bars."

With the exception of the blast furnace at Cranberry which
uses the magnetic iron ore from the Cranberry mine, no other
furnace has been erected in western !N"orth ^Carolina for the
treatment of iron ores; and when the Pasley forge on Helton
Creek went out of commission, there was no other point in west-

1913] Geological History of Western 1^. C. 41

ern ISTorth Carolina, except the Cranberry, where iron was being
made. A small amount of ore has been shipped from time to
time from various localities.

Copper mining at one time was a prominent industry of
western North Carolina; and while I have no definite data as
to when copper mines were first operated in western ]N"orth Car-
olina, we do know that copper properties were worked before
the Civil War, principally in Ashe and Alleghany counties. The
most noted mine was the Ore Knob, which is in the southeast
corner of Ashe County near the top of the Blue Ridge and about
two miles from JSTew River. This mine was first opened some-
time before the War, but it was not until some years after the
war that it was developed to any great extent. The ore deposit
was worked to a depth of 400 feet by means of numerous shafts
and drifts. The mine was equipped with a smelter for j)roduc-
ing a high grade of copper. The amount of copper produced and
shipped from January, 1879, to April, 1880, which was the time
the mine was fully operated, was something over 1,640 tons.
The cost to produce and market this copper was $.1039 a pound.
The mine has not been worked since about 1882. Other copper
properties that were worked were the Copper Knob or Gap
Creek mine in the southeast part of Ashe County; the Peach
Bottom mine on Elk Creek, Alleghany County; the Cullowhee
mine on Cullowhee Mountain, and Savannah mine on Savannah
Creek, Jackson County.

Another mineral for which western jSTorth Carolina is noted
is corundum. In 1870, Mr. Hiram Crisp found the first corun-
dum that attracted attention to the present mining region of
iSTorth Carolina, at what is now the Corundum Hill mine. A
specimen w^as sent to Prof. Kerr, then State Geologist, for
identification, and considerable interest was aroused when it
was discovered that it was corundum. In the same year, Mr.
J. H. Adams found corundum in a similar occurrence at Pel-
ham, Massachusetts.

In 1870-71, much activity was displayed in the search for
corundum in the peridotite regions of the southwestern coun-
ties of ISTorth Carolina, and new localities were soon brought to

42 Journal of the Mitchell Society lOctoher

light in Macon, Jackson, Buncombe, and Yancey counties. In
1871, Dr. Genth discovered the emery of Guilford County.
About this time, Mr. Crisp and Dr. C. D. Smith began active
work on the Corundum Hill property, and obtained about a
thousand pounds of corundum, part of which was sold to col-
lectors for cabinet specimens. Some of the masses that were
found weighed as much as 40 pounds.

Systematic mining for corundum did not begin until the fall
of 1871, when the Corundum Hill property was purchased by
Col. Chas. W. Jenks, of St. Louis, Missouri, and Mr. E. B.
Ward, of Detroit, Michigan, and work was soon begun under
the superintendence of Col. Jenks. This was the first systematic
mining of common corundum, as distinguished from emery and
the gem varieties, ever undertaken, while the first mining of the
emery variety of corundum in America was at Chester, Massa-
chusetts. The Corundum Hill mine produced corundum almost
continuously from 1872 to 1901. Other mines that have pro-
duced corundum are the Buck Creek mine in Clay County ; the
Ellijay mine in Macon County; the Carter mine in Madison
County ; and the Higden mine and Behr mine in Clay County.

Mica mining in I^orth Carolina began about 1870, and for the
first 5 years practically all the mica mined was handled by Heap
and Clapp, and was obtained from the mines of Mitchell and
Yancey counties. Mica has continued to be mined almost con-
stantly since that time not only in Yancey and Mitchell counties,
but in Ashe, Buncombe, Hay^vood, Jackson, and Macon coun-
ties. There are a great many old workings on these mica dej)osits
and before they had been investigated and the mica discovered
they were supposed to be old workings of the Spaniards who were
hunting for silver. It is now supposed that these old workings
were made by the Indians for these sheets of mica; and it is
known that mica has been found in Indian mounds and was
used by the Indians who inhabited what is now Ohio in the
manufacture of their beads. JSTorth Carolina mica is still known
as standard mica, as it was reckoned from the beginning.

Several other minerals should be mentioned in connection with
the descriptions given above as they were first identified in I^orth

1913] Geological Histoky of Western K. C. 43

Carolina. The mineral that stands out most strikingly is the
rhodolite, a gem mineral which was discovered in Macon County
about 1894 and was given its name from the resemblance of its
color to that of certain rhododendron.

Mitchellite, a variety of chromite, was discovered near Web-
ster, Jackson County, 1895, and was named in honor of the late
Prof. Elisha Mitchell of Xorth Carolina.

Wellsite, one of the minerals of the zeolite group, was dis-
covered in 1892 at the Buck Creek mine. Clay County, and was
named in honor of Prof. H. L. Wells, of Yale University.

The following, belonging to the vermiculite group of min-
erals, have been found associated with corundum, and were de-
scribed by Doctor Genth; they were all discovered about the
same time in 1872 or '73: culsageeite, a variety of jefferisite,
found at the Corundum Hill mine and named for a jDostoffice
near that j)lace; kerrite, found at Corundum Hill mine, and
named in honor of Mr. W. C. Kerr, former State Geologist of
Xorth Carolina; maconite, found at the Corundum Hill mine
and named after Macon County; lucasite, found at the Corun-
dum Hill mine and named after Dr. H. S. Lucas, who owned the
Corundum Hill mine ; and willcoxite, found at the Buck Creek
(Cullakenee) mine. Clay County, and named after Jos-
eph Wilcox of Philadelphia. Auerlite, found at the Freeman
mine. Green River, Henderson County, about 1888, it is a thor-
ium mineral, and was named for Dr. Carl Auer von Welsbach ;
hatchettolite, a tantlum-uranium mineral, was found at the
Wiseman Mica mine, Mitchell County, about 1877, and was
named after the English chemist, Charles Hatchett; phosphur-
anylite, a uranium mineral, found at the Flat Rock mine,
Mitchell County, about 1879, and named from the chemical
composition of the mineral ; and rogersite, a niobium mineral,
found at the Wiseman Mica mine, Mitchell County, about 1877,
named after Prof. W. B. Rogers.

References: — IvT.C . Geol. Survey, Vol. II, Pt. 1, Ores of
I^orth Carolina, 1887. ^. C. Geol. and Economic Survey, Bull.
1, Iron Ores of Korth Carolina, 1893 ; Vol. I, (Corundum and
the Periodotites of N"orth Carolina, 1905 ; Economic Papers 6,

44 JOUENAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY \_Octoher

8 and 9 on tlie Mining Industry in IsTortli Carolina, 1901, 1904,
1905. U. S. G. S. Geologic Folios, Cranberry, 1903 ; Asheville,
1904; Monnt Mitchell, 1905; Pisgah, 1907; Eoan Mountain,
1907; Nantahala, 1907.
Chapel Hill, N. C.

ELECTEOMOTIVE FORCE OF SILVER NITRATE
CONCENTRATION CELLS*

lest- 1
eons >^

BY JAMES M. BELL A^'D ALEXANDER L. FEILD

The electromotive forces of concentration cells — two
aqueous solutions of silver nitrate between silver electrodes,
Ag/AgNOg/AgNOg/Ag — have been measured by Miesler/ by
Nernst,- by Negbaur,^ by Cumming and
Abegg,'* and by Cybulski and Dunin-
Borkowski.^ Non-aqueous solutions
have been emj)loyed in similar measure-
ments by Bodlander and Eberlein,^ by
Neustadt and Abegg,''' and by Roshdest-
wensky and Lewis,^ the non-aqueou=
solvents being ethylamine, methylamine,
methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, acetone
and pyridine.

The present paper contains results
of measurements of the electromotive
force in aqueous solutions and in ethyl
alcohol solutions over a wider range of
concentrations than heretofore used.

The water used in making up the so-
lutions was distilled several times and
had a low conductivity. The ethyl alco-
hol stood several days over quicklime
and was then distilled from barium ox-
ide. Baker's analyzed silver nitrate
was used, the impurities present being
negligible in amount.

The cell is shown in the figure, and
consists of a U-tube with outlet tube and

* Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXV.
No. 6. June, 191.3.

^ Monatshefte, 8, 193, 365 (1887); J. Chem. Soc, 52, 1073 (1887); 54, 13
(1888).

-Z. physik. Chem., 4, 155 (1889).

3 TTJerf. Ann., 44, 737 (1891).

*Z. Elektrochem., 13, 18 (1907).

^An.::. Akacl. Wiss. Krattkau, 1909, 660. Chem. Zmtr., 1909, II, 1295,

«Ber.. 36, 3945 (1903).

'Z. physik. Chem., 69, 486 (1909).

sj. Chem. Soc, 99, 2138 (1911).

45

46 JOUENAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY \_Octoher

three way stock-cock. W'liile the cell was in tlie thermostat, the?
outlet tube was cajoped. The three-way stopcock permitted the
removal of either solution, and permitted the separation of the
solutions in the limbs of the tube until the measurement was
about to be made. The electrodes were of platinum foil about
1 cm. square, welded to platinum wire which was fused through
a glass tube containing mercury. Frequently during the course
of the experiments, the platinum foil and wire were plated with
silver from silver nitrate solutions acidified with nitric acid.
When the two solutions were at the same level in the two limbs
of the U-tube, connection between them was made by opening
the stop-cock, and the E. M. F. was determined by the ordinary
jDotentiometer method. The galvanometer was sensitive to
0.00005 volt even with a large resistance in the circuit. An
electrically heated and electrically controlled thermostat was
run at 25° constant to 0.01°. The measurements were irregular
until the metal coating of the thermostat tank was grounded.

Measurements of the electromotive force of such combinations
were constant within 0.0001 volt for at least 20 minutes after
putting the solutions in contact. The table below gives the
mean of two values obtained when different solutions and fresh-
ly plated electrodes were used. These duplicate measurements
differed at most by 0.0003 volt and in the majority of cases by
not more than 0.0001 volt.

TABW I

Mols/liter

Mols/liter

E.M.F. obs. „
Millivolts. ^

E

- log,, c,/c.

(I)

I.O

O.I

47.2

0.0560

(2)

I.O

O.OI

103.6

0.0584

(3)

0.3

0.03

53.6

0.0606

(4)

0.3

0.003

113-8

0.0616

(S)

O.I

O.OI

S6.6^

0.0608

(6)

0.03

0.003

60.1

0.0623

(7)

O.OI

0.00 1

60.2^

0.0623

These readings show satisfactory agreement among them-
selves, for the sum of (1) and (5) should equal (2), and the
sum of (3) and (6) should equal (4). The differences are
0.0002 and 0.0001 volt respectively.

1 Gumming finds 59.0 millivolts.

2 Cumming finds 61.8 millivolts.

1913] Silver Xitkate Concentration Cells 47

The Xernst formula for cells of this type is

2v RT <:,

u-\-v »F C2

where c^ and Co refer to the concentration of silver ions and not
to the concentration of silver nitrate. It is necessary to know
the values of u and v, the migration ratios of Ag"" and jSTOg".
With solutions for which u and v are constant, values propor-
tional to the ionic concentrations are given by the conductivities
of the solutions, and these are inversely proportional to the re-
sistance of the solutions. Gumming and Abegg conclude "that

rABLE II

Concentration.

Resistance,

I.O

3.486

0.3

g.646

O.I

24.25

0.03

73-80

O.OI

206.49

0.003

679-32

0.00 1

1907.0

conductivity seems to be an exact measure of ion concentration."
The preceding table contains the results of measurements of
the resistances of the above solutions.

Measurements of the migration ratios at each concentration
were not made. The table given by Lehfeldt^ indicates that
the migration ratio for silver nitrate is fairly constant up to a
concentration of 0.2 mols per liter. Assuming this value to be
constant the above becomes

E 2v RT

. loare 10 = K.

logio C1/C2 H + t/ »F

E

The values of K^ are given in the last column of

logioCi/Co

Table I and with the exception of cells 1 and 2, where normal
solutions were used, they are fairly constant. This confirms
the results of previous investigations, which show that the

48 JouEisrAL OF THE MiTCHELL SociETY \_Octoher

Nernst formula holds for dilute solutions of silver nitrate. From
tlie value of K found above the values of u and v may be calcu-
lated by substitution of the proper values of the other quantities
in the equation

RT 2v

K = ; — lege 10

nF u+v

Taking K=0.0623 the value of v is 0.523 while the observed
value, given by Lehfeldt^ is 0.528.

The table compiled by Lehfeldt indicates that the value of v
is less for concentrated solutions and this would make the value
of K smaller in proportion. The present results are in harmony
with this fact, although it is impossible as yet to calculate the
electromotive force between two solutions of silver nitrate of
such concentrations that the migration ratio of the two are dif-
ferent.

The following table gives the results of measurements of the
electromotive forces of three combinations where ethyl alcohol
was used as solvent.

Mols/liter
c,

o.i

O.I
0.01

TABLE III
Mols/liter
c,

O.OI
0.00 1
O.OOI

E.M.P. obs. E

(I)

(2)

(3)

Millivolts. ^~- login C1/C2

47.0 0.068

106.6 0.071

59.7 0.074

The experimental values are consistent among themselves as the
sum of (1) and (3) is 106.7 against 106.6 for (2).

The relative ionic concentration of silver ions was determined
by conductivity measurements the results being given in the
next table.

TABLE IV

Concentration. Resistance.

o.i 208.5

O.OI 1024.0

o.ooi 6420.0

Again assuming that at all the concentrations employed the
values of the migration ratios remain constant, the value of K

^Electrochemistry, p. 256 (1904).

1913] Silver JSTitrate iConcenteation Cells 49

was determined by the same formula as for aqueous solutions.
As these values vary somewhat (see Table III), it seems prob-
able that the migration ratios of Ag* and ISTOg" are not constant
even for concentrations below o.lA^. Taking K^O.074, the
value of V is 0.62.

SUMMARY

The electromotive forces of concentration cells containing
solutions of silver nitrate in water at 25° are in accord with the
I^ernst formula for dilute solutions. Where higher concentra-
tions were employed the calculated value of the electromotive
force is greater than the observed because the migration ratio v
is smaller at the higher concentrations. This affects two factors
in the IsTernst equation, viz., ^v/u-^v and log c^/c^. The latter
factor is affected because the ratio of the ion concentrations
c-i^/co is determined from conductivity measurements and this
method of determination is valid only when the migration ve-
locity remains constant. The value of migration ratio for
dilute solutions calculated from the above results agrees closely
with the values found by direct experiment.

For ethyl alcohol solutions the migration ratio apparently
varies even at concentrations below o.l N. The value of v cal-
culated from the most dilute solution was 0.62.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

ANNUAL ADDKESS OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SHELLFISH

COMMISSIONERS, NORFOLK, VA.,

APRIL 23, 1913

BY JOSEPH HYDE PKATT

It is witli a great deal of pleasure that I, as President of the
National Association of Shellfish Commissioners, respond for
the members of the Association and delegates to this convention
to this most cordial welcome that has been extended to iis. I
can assnre the good people of the citj of Norfolk and of the
State of Virginia that it is very gratifying to us to be able to
hold this fifth annual convention of our Association in the old
historic State of Virginia, which has always stood in the fore-
ground of progress, and has played such a vital and important
part along all lines in the development of our great nation. The
warm, sincere, and open-hearted hosj)itality for which Virginia
has always been noted, is now being extended to us. There are
but very few instances in the history of this great State where
this warm and open-hearted hospitality has not been shown to
those who desired to come within her borders, such as : the re-
fusal of the State to accept certain governors that England
wished to force upon her ; the warm but inhospitable reception
that was extended so eifectively to Cornwallis and his followers
during the Revolutionary War; and the polite and energetic
request that was given to certain visitors w^ho insisted on coming
into the State during the sixties that their room was j)referable
to their company. I believe, outside of such instances as I
have mentioned, that Virginia has at all times extended the
right hand of fellowship and free hospitality to all who wish to
come and visit or dwell within her borders. Even those whom
she turned away on account of certain differences have, when
the differences became adjusted, been and are now being re-
ceived with the same sincere cordiality as if these differences
had never existed.

We cannot, as we meet together in this State, prevent ourselves
from reminiscing regarding the early history of Virginia ; from

50

1913] Address of President iST. A. S. Com. 51

the spring of 1607, when the first permanent English colony
was established at Jamestown, Va. ; and, as we do this, we
realize that to the men who assisted in the building up of this
colony and to all Virginians who have followed, even to perhaps
the greatest of all, who now occupies the highest office in the
gift of the people, — President Woodrow Wilson, — tbat to these
men the nation is indebted for much of its success and its rise
to the greatest nation in the world.

It can be truthfully said that not only in the United States
but also in our o^\ai States individualism and sectionalism, as
opposed to a national or state community spirit, has reached in
the past few years a point that is of positive detriment to the
best growth and development of our country. We believe, how-
ever, that we now have at the head of our national government
a broad-minded, conscientious man whose attention is directed
to measures of nation-wide importance, which he will endeavor
to see are considered in a manner that will be for the best in-
terest of the country at large, and not for the benefit of any
particular local section or community or interest at the expense
of the country as a whole. I believe that the influence of this
man is going to be wide-spread throughout the nation, so that
various measures that are coming up in the states will be con-
sidered from the standpoint of the State, and not from the
standpoint of the county or township. It is undoubtedly true
that questions that come up relating to the conservation and
perpetuation of our natural resources of whatever character
they may be, must be considered from at least a state, and in
some cases a national standpoint, if the best results or even any
good results are 'to he obtained ; and this is very true in connec-
tion with the shellfish industries.

Virginia is one of the few South Atlantic States that has
taken a decided practical step looking toward the conservation
and perpetuation of her shellfish industry, and through the con-
scientious work of her able commissioner, Hon. W. McDonald
Lee, she has reached the place where she can point with pride
to what the State is accomplishing in the oyster industry. Her
Lynnhaven and James River oysters are famous not only in the

52 JOUKISTAL OF THE MiTCIIELL SoCIETY \_Octoher

State but througliout the country, and slie lias made them
abundant so that she can supply the greatest demand that may
arise for them. I have used the words "made them abundant"
advisedly, inasmuch as the results accomplished have been due
to the actual work of man in the cultivation and planting of
the oyster as well as assisting by adequate statutes the growth
and reproduction of the oyster on the natural rock. The oyster
industry is on a paying basis, and each year is enabled to pay
into the General Treasury of the State a very satisfactory fund,
after all exj^enses have been met. This could only have been
accomplished as a state-wide measure.

Man himself is one of the most imiwrtant factors in decreas-
ing the supply of oysters and other shellfish in the waters of
the several states, due largely to his selfish interest and to his
idea that anything that comes out of the sea is his by a God-
given right, and that the State has no authority over it whatever.
Many of the natural oyster rocks or reefs may have been par-
tially or wholly destroyed by becoming muddied or sanded, due
to very severe storms, thus smothering the oysters ; or the beds
may have been destroyed by some parasite; or, because of the
certain changes of the coast line, waters may have become too
fresh; and thus the natural rocks have been destroyed. I^ot-
withstanding the fact that these causes may account for the
destruction of many natural rocks, it is undoubtedly true that
the most important influence is the one that has to do with the
actual taking of the oysters themselves. This is especially true
of the lobster, which in many sections has been almost entirely
exterminated by overfishing. The oyster and the clam have
practically no chance whatever to protect themselves or to
escape their worst enemy, man; but, though an enemy, it is
also through the efforts of man that the destruction wrought
in many places must be and has been remedied. If it had not
been for the conservationist or perhaps I might say in connec-
tion with the oyster industry, the man who appreciated the
oyster as a delicious food, realizing that unless some steps wer-j
taken by the State or ISTational governments to protect it and
prevent over-oystering of the natural rocks, the oyster would
be exterminated ; we would be today in many, if not all of the

1913] Addkess of Peesidext X. A. S. Com. 53

states, witliout this form of food. There were such men who
came to the assistance not only of the oyster but of other shell-
fish. In many instances, however, it would have been too late
with the oyster if it had not been previously demonstrated that
its cultivation was a commercial jDroposition, and this had been
taken up very extensively in those states where the natural rock
had been very nearly depleted. Besides producing oysters on
the made rock, another result of the cultivation of the oyster
has been that the natural rocks have in several states begun to
increase and become again very productive, which is undoubted-
ly due to the great quantity of spat that was produced by the
cultivated beds, and which settled on the natural rocks.

Such recommendations as are made for the perpetuation and
cultivation of the oyster and the protection and perpetuation
of other shellfish can only be carried out by a state's taking the
problem and considering it as a state proposition. Where this
has been done the results have been most beneficial and gratify-
ing, and the oyster industry of these states has been revived and
become a very profitable one. There are, however, still many
states where the problem has not yet been successfully solved;
and it is found, upon investigation, that the reason for this
is that state legislators have not and are not now considering the
question as a state problem, but are permitting the local com-
munities to have enacted laws relative to the oyster industry,
and are not taking any steps from the standpoint of the state for
the protection of these shellfish. The result is, that in several
of the states, as: Xorth Carolina and Georgia, oystering has
reached a very low ebb, so low in fact that it is scarcely to be
reckoned with in considering the oyster industry of this country.

The work of this Association is to consider and assist in the
solving of all problems that may come up in regard to the per-
petuation of the various shellfish ; and it has tried and is still
trying to bring every state that has shell fisheries to a realiza-
tion of the absolute necessity of the state taking up the problem
and passing adequate legislation covering the whole industry in
the state. The Association has had the hearty co-operation of
the United States Bureau of Fisheries in this work, and we
believe that the considerable progress that has been made in the

54 JOTJKNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SoCIETY \^Octol>er

sliellfisli industry can be directly traced to tlie work of this As-
sociation.

With the passage of adequate laws regulating the fishing of
the oyster, and its cultivation, problems immediately come up
that must be considered and solved, such as :

"What are natural rocks ?

What areas shall be open for cultivation of the oyster ?

Shall such areas be leased or sold ?

How much area shall each individual be permitted to take up ?

How shall the oyster bottoms be taxed ?

What regulation shall be made in regard to the production
and shipment of seed oysters ?

What measures shall the State take to protect the beds that
are being cultivated ; for the protection of the natural rock ?

Pollution of oyster rocks and its prevention.

Eifect of dumping all waste material into our harbors and
bays which may result in the pollution of oyster rocks and clam
beds, or may cover the oyster rock and thus smother the oysters.

Shall the areas of the natural rock be mapped or the areas
that are leased or sold for cultivation ?

Uniform seasons for catching oysters in adjoining states.

The solution of these problems is now being taken up by the
various states and also the Federal Government; and they are
slowly but surely being solved, and we believe in the interest of
the shellfish industries.

As can readily be seen from these problems, it will be abso-
lutely impossible to solve them unless it is done by the states
as state propositions. The problems vary in the diiferent states
and in some that relating to the oyster has been almost entirely
solved, but there still remains a great deal to be done in con-
nection with the perpetuation of other forms of shellfish. The
necessary measures that are required to better the various shell-
fish industries will be accomplished just so fast as we are able
to educate those who make a livelihood out of these industries,
as to the need of conservation; bring the rest of the people of
that particular state to a realization that they too have a decided
personal interest in the conservation of these industries; and

1913] Address of President X. A. S. Com. 55

cause each of these classes of people to realize that the shellfish
do uot belong to the individual but to the state, and, therefore,
the state has a right to insist uj)on their j^rotection and perpetu-
ation.

The iSTational Association of Shellfish Commissioners is try-
ing to bring together the best information obtainable regarding
the problems suggested above ; and they are holding conventions
to discuss these problems and work out, if possible, a plan
which will eventually solve them. The information at our con-
ventions has been of very great assistance to the commissioners
of the various state, and is being utilized by them for the good
of the industry.

Some states are better equipped than others for carrying on
experimental work in connection with certain problems, and, al-
though the results of their experiments are of peculiar value to
that state, yet they are of great value to all who are interested
in the same or similar problems to those that have been investi-
gated. Our Association should be and is a clearing house
through which each State Commission can obtain the benefit of
the results obtained by the others.

The discussions that have taken place at our previous con-
ventions on such subjects as:

The leasing vs. the sale of sea bottoms for oyster and clam
cultivation ;

The method and rate of taxation of oyster and clam bottoms ;

The pollution of oyster bottoms ;
have all 'been of very great interest, and the fervor and earnest-
ness with which the delegates to the convntion entered into the
discussion resulted in the co-ordination of our ideas and theories,
and emphasized the value of co-operation.

We sometimes become impatient at the length of time re-
quired to have our ideas, suggestions and recommendations put
into practice by our state legislators, and we wonder why they
can be so igTiorant on such an important subject, as the ^'Shell-
fish Industry." Yet we cannot expect them to be very familiar
with a subject that has taken us years to understand and realize
its great value. What we do, however, have a right to become
impatient over is the often apparent unwillingness of our legis-

56 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Octo'ber

lators to accept the recommendations of tlie Shellfisli Commis-
sions regarding the industry or that tEeir ideas are of any par-
ticular value ; and instead pass legislation regarding the in-
dustry that is almost diametrically opposite to our suggestions.
This is frequently done for political reasons, and the interests
of the state have been sacrificed for self advancement. I believe,
however, the tide is turning and that we are entering upon an
era when man's love of country and his true patriotism will
outweigh the thought of self; and in deciding questions of state
his query will be: What effect will this measure have upon
the country and upon my state, and not what will be the po-
litical effect upon me. When Ave have broadened and developed
to such an extent that we consider in these great questions first,
our country's interest, then our state, then our county, and last
our own individual community, then and then only, will we be
able to obtain the best solutions to these problems.

Our co-o]oeration should not only be between the states but
between the states and the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. There
should be a more adequate appropriation made by Congress to
the Bureau of Fisheries for investigations relating to the shell-
fish industry. There is a wide field for work which should be
done largely by the Federal Government, and in co-operation
with the several states. The importance and value of the in-
dustry warrant our making a vigorous demand upon Congress
for such an appropriation.

The oyster, clam, scallop, the lobster, the crab and the terra-
pin must all receive the attention of the Shellfish Commissions.

The sessions of our convention are open to the public and we
will gladly welcome any who are interested enough in the sub-
ject to attend; and we may in this way impress upon laymen
the value and importance of the industry we reiDresent.

In closing, I wish to express to you Virginians our extreme
regret that illness has kej^t Governor Mann from meeting with
us. We miss his word of cheer and guidance, and voice with
you the prayer that his illness may not be for long, and that he
will soon be restored to his State in full vigor and health.

Chapei< Hill, N. C.

LIME OX SOILS

BY JOIIX E. SMITH

The various operations of tillage are performed for the pur-
pose of enabling the plant to obtain the food necessary in the
process of growth. Certain substances are sometimes added to
the soil to increase its productivity; these are known as soil
amendments and lime is one of the most useful of them.

COERECTS THE ACIDITY

An acid condition results from the decay of organic matter,
is brought to the top soil from the subsoil by capillary water,
is produced by nitrifying bacteria, and is formed in other ways.
All forms of lime (except gypsum) readily counteract or
neutralize this condition, one ton per acre in most cases being
sufficient to keep the soil neutral for two or three years.

AIDS jN^ITRIFICATIOI^

The acidity of soils is somewhat injurious to the growth of
many plants and in many instances is fatal to the legumes
(clover, vetch, alfalfa, etc.), whose power to assimilate and
store nitrogen is dependent on the activity of bacteria that thrive
in a neutral or slightly alkaline soil but cannot live in the pres-
ence of much of the acidity which in part is the product of their
own work. A supply of lime in the soil neutralizes the acid as
rapidly as it is formed and thus prevents its accumulation and
maintains a condition favorable to the rapid growth of nitrify-
ing bacteria. Lime is therefore essential to the successful
growth of leguminous plants sooner or later.

IMPROVES THE STRUCTURE

By structure of the soil is meant the arrangement or grouping
of the soil particles. This is very intimately related to pore
space, water holding capacity, and to the movements of soil
moisture.

The addition of lime to clay soils is a strong factor in pre-
venting cloddiness and in producing that most desirable granu-
lar, crumb-like structure which constitutes "good tilth," so

57

58 Journal of the Mitchell Society [October

necessary in retainifig tlie moisture in the soil during drj
weather. It also increases the permeabilitj of the soil for air.
l^earlj all forms of lime readily improve the soil structure.

For sandy soils a small amount of lime carbonate will serve
to make the structure slightly more compact by cementing some
of the particles together, thereby improving the power of the
soil to hold capillary water and preventing its drying so readily.

;- FOEMS OF LIME

In nature the chief source of "lime" is the common mineral
calcite which occurs extensively as beds of fossils shells, often
not distinguishable, and these beds according to their j)urity,
the degree of consolidation, method of deposition, subsequent
changes, and to the kind and nature of the contributing organ-
isms, are classified as limestones, marls, chalk, marble, etc.

This material is applied to the soil in three forms ; decayed
limestone, marl, etc., these substances (CaCOg) ground, and
that which has been burned at a high temperature. In the
process of burning, a gas (carbon dioxide, CO2) is given off
and calcium oxide (CaO), quicklime, remains. When quick-
lime is allowed to slack slowly in dry air, it again assumes the
form of a carbonate and is called air-slaked lime. If water be
added to the quicklime, the mixture forms calcium hydrate,
Ca(0II)2, and is known as water-slaked or hydrated (caustic)
lime. If the slaking take place in damp air, the quicklime
absorbs from the air some moisture and some carbon dioxide
the result being a mixture of lime carbonate and hydrated lime.

Belated Forms. — Dolomite is a calcium magnesium carbon-
ate (CaCOg, MgCOo), sometimes incorrectly called magnesian
limestone. It occurs extensively in the Appalachian Mountains
and is found in Virginia, Tennessee, ISTorth Carolina, Georgia,
and Alabama, where it is frequently called "marble."

Gypsum, the hydrated sulfate of calcium (CaS04, 2II2O), is
ground and sold on the market as "Land Plaster."

1913] Lime on Soils 59

TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS

Dolomite

CaCoa

MgCO

100 lbs. of pure limestone will produce when burned, 56
lbs. of quicklime which, when air-slaked, becomes 100 lbs. of
finely powdered lime carbonate. If the 56 lbs. of quicklime be
water-slaked, it unites with 18 lbs. of water to form 74 lbs. of
hvdrated lime. 100 lbs. of ground limestone contains the same
amount of lime as 167 lbs. of 60% marl; one ton of hydrated
lime is equal to three-quarters of a ton of quicklime and to two
and one-fourth tons of 60% marl. If a given amount of ground
limestone (one ton for example) is worth $1.00, the same quant-
ity of 75% marl is worth (by weight) $.75, and of hydrated
lime, $1.35. This however does not indicate the relative values
of their effects on the soil.

ADAPTATION OF FOEMS

Gypsum. — This form of calcium does not neutralize the
acidity of the soil but on the other hand tends to increase it
and should not therefore be used except on neutral or alkaline
soils and then only in small quantities. It frequently changes
some of the potash of the soil to the soluble form and sometimes
makes more phosphorus available for the use of the plant.

In its effects on soil structure it decreases the rate of move-
ment of capillary water and consequently reduces evaporation
from the surface (in sandy soils 27%, King, The Soil, p. 177).

Gypsum accelerates the process of nitrification more than any
other known substance. Its relation to lime in this respect may
be seen in the following figures: lime carbonate, 13.3; gypsum,
100 (Hilgard, Soils, p. 147). It should be used on soils for
this purpose only.

Dolomite. — This rock when ground very fine and applied to
the soil has much the same effect as the lime carbonate especial-
ly on the first two or three crops following its application.

60 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Octoher

Later by successive additions of it to a field, the magnesia might
be increased to an injurious extent, but this could be avoided
by the occasional use of lime carbonate. Companies quarrying
this material might utilize some of their wasted stone dust by
selling it for this purj^ose. The burned dolomite is strongly
caustic and should not be put on the land.

Hydrated Lime. — This form greatly hastens vegetable decay
and often causes waste leading toward exhaustion of the organic
content of the soil. When it is applied therefore, more organic
matter such as barnyard compost, legume crops, etc., must be
added except on soils containing peat, etc.

It corrects the acidity of the soil more quickly than other
forms of lime and may produce a better increase in the yield
during the first two or three years. For this reason it is fre-
quently used by tenants.

On heavy clay soils this fomi is the most effective in pro-
ducing a good granular, crumb-like structure and thus aids in
the retention of moisture near the surface.

Lime Carbonate. — Ground limestone readily corrects the
acidity of the soil, assists greatly in producing a condition fav-
orable to the growth of nitrifying bacteria, and directly or indi-
rectly renders available other plant foods such as phosphoric
a;cid and potash. It changes vegetable materials into neutral
humus at once and concentrates their nitrogen.

A liberal supply of lime carbonate added to orchard lands
will increase the sweetness of the fruit (grapes included) if the
lime was previously deficient in amount.

Lime carbonate greatly increases the flocculation of soil parti-
cles into granules and thus improves the texture of the soil.

Lime carbonate is useful in nearly every way in which lime
is valuable as a soil amendment.

STJMMAEY AND CONCLUSIONS

Lender average conditions plants use annually nearly half a
ton of lime carbonate per acre.

The effectiveness of lime added to the soil depends very
largely on its fineness of grain (texture) and on its being
thoroly mixed with the soil.

1913] Lime ox Soils 61

The finest grained limes are tlie air-slaked and the hydrated
forms.

TJnground limes and marls should be extremely well decayed.

The degree of acidity present and the amount of plant food
in the soil determine the amount of lime to be used.

One or two tons per acre applied every two or three years is
much better than larger amounts added at longer intervals.

Lime should be shipped in its most condensed form (quick-
lime) and hydrated on the farm where it is used.

Ground lime should be applied in the summer or fall to be
available for the next spring crop. Hydrated lime is put on
(do not mix it with phosphates) about a month before seeding.

The limestones and most of the marls of the Atlantic and
Gulf Coastal Plains are desirable for use as ground material.

In Europe and America nearly all of the experiments con-
ducted to test the relative value of ground limestone and the
hydrated lime as amendments to soils deficient in lime, have
produced results favorable to the lime carbonate.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

VOL. XXIX JANUARY, 1914 No. 3

JOURNAL

OF THE

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C, U. S. A.

TO BE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society .

p. H. DAGGETT, President
J. M. BELlr, Vice-President
W. W. RANKIN, Recording Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

Editors of the Journal:

W. C. COKER

J. M. BEEE. - A. H. PATTERSON

CONTENTS

Details of Aeeangements and Oeganization for the
Use or Oonvict Laboe in Road Constetjction —
Joseph Hyde Pratt 63

The Condensatioin- of Vanielin and Pipeeonal with

Oeetain Aeomatio Amines — Alvin 8, Wheeler. ... 77

Color and Steuctuee in Oeganic Compounds — W. L.

Jeffries 81

Timber Eesources of Orange County, IST. C. — /. 8.

Holmes 89

Work at the Beaufort Laboeatoey — TF". G. George .... 94

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society— Quarterly. Price
$2.00 per year ; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
University of Nortli Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C

JOURNAL

OF THE

ELISHA MITCHELL S CIENTIFIC SOCIETY

VOLUME XXIX JANUARY. 1914 No. 3

DETAILS OF ARRANGEME'^^ts Al^B ORGANIZA-
TION FOR THE USE OF CONVICT LABOR
IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT

Before taking up a discussion of the details of arrangements
or organization for the use of convict labor in the construction
of public roads, I wish to state briefly certain phases of the
convict labor problem that are pertinent to the economic use of
such labor. There are certain fundamental principles that
must be borne in mind in considering this problem and in the
handling of convict labor :

First : The convict is a human being and must be treated as
such ; he has a sense of responsibility, honor and discipline,
and this sense can be quickened and developed.

Second: That perhaps with few exceptions, there is some
good in every convict, which can be developed and made para-
mount in the character of the man.

Third : The convict in serving his sentence is simply paying
a debt that he owes to the State for certain infringements of
the laws of that State; and, when he has served this sentence,
he has paid his debt and should be in a position to become a
good and valuable citizen of the State. Most convicts are serv-
ing a first sentence and often for a crime committed on the spur
of the moment, and with many of them this one crime com-
mitted represents the only black spot in their lives.

Fourth : Hard work is a good reformer, and idleness begets
melancholia.

Fifth : The State on her part owes it to the convict to assist
him in every way to pay his debt as speedily and economically

63

64 JouKNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SociETY [January

as possible, and in such a way that he is a better man when his
debt is paid than when he was convicted.

Sixth : The attitude of the State toward the convict should
be corrective and not vindictive ; to uplift and not degrade
him.

Seventh : To put a man in stripes often so degrades and
humiliates him that it is extremely hard, and sometimes im-
possible, for him to reform.

Eighth : Outdoor work is much more conducive to good
health and cheerful dispositions than confinement in prisons
or factories with no outdoor exercises but what can be obtained
in a limited area of a penitentiary yard or court.

Ninth : There must be an incentive before good work can
be expected from most convicts.

Tenth : There is a great variation in the character and work-
ing ability of diiferent convicts.

Eleventh : In many cases families were dependent upon the
convict before his sentence and are, during his sentence, de-
prived of that support.

The first question that presents itself is whether the attitude
of the State toward the convict should be to impress upon
him that he has committed a wrong and therefore there is no
good in him, and that this idea must be impressed upon him
continually during the serving of his sentence; or whether the
attitude of the State shall be that the convicted man in serving
out his sentence is paying a just debt to the State, and that,
while she insists the debt shall be paid and that in paying it the
convict shall not forget that he is a debtor to the State, yet he
may be able to eliminate as far as possible the fact that crime
has been committed. Is it possible for the State to have this
latter attitude toward the convict when they compel him to
wear stripes — which in America universally denote the felon
— have their heads shaved, and always walk in lock step when
going from one part of the prison ground to another ? These
phases of a convict's life were formerly considered necessary
in order to prevent his escape and were also considered as part
of his punishment. They are degrading, and will wear out the

1914] Convict Labor in Road Constkuction 65

soul of many a man ; and, to my mind, should only be used as
a last resort and not as a first resort. I believe depriving a
man of his liberty and requiring him to work for the State for
a certain length of time according to the gravity of his crime
is sufficient punishment for a very large majority of the men
who are convicted.

At present, without going into the question as to what is the
best work for the convict to do, I wish simply to make the
general proposition that in any group of convicts it will always
be found that some will do a great deal more and better work
than others, that some will work very willingly and industri-
ously; while others are lazy and only work the minimum
amount that is required of them. This is especially true of a
certain class, when they feel that they have got nothing what-
ever to gain by more energetic endeavors. Would it not then
be the proper thing for the State to allow the convict a certain
percentage of the value of his labor, w^hich could be forwarded
to his family, if he has one dependent upon, him ; or become
accumulative and be given to him at the end of his sentence
as a fund with which to start life anew.

The State is the guardian of every convict and she can make
or break him according to the treatment she measures out to
him. Her rules and regulations must be just, and then she
must insist upon their strict obedience. On the other hand she
must be just as strict to see that those she places in charge of
the convict, whether it be Prison Warden, Superintendent, or
Foreman, all keep faith with the convict and that all promises
made to them of whatever character are kept. A promise to the
convict is an obligation that the State must keep, and upon the
strict carrying out of such promises and the strict enforcement
of just rules and regulations will depend the success of the use
of convict labor not only in road construction but for any other
purpose.

Keeping in mind the suggestions and statements made above,
I would submit for your consideration as a logical plan for the
treatment and organization for work of the convict the follow-
ing:

That the men who have been convicted and sentenced for the

66 Journal of the Mitchell Society [^January

first time all be considered as men capable of being treated in
the most lenient way by the prison anthorities. That they shall
not be required to wear stripes or have their heads shaved,
reserving this form of prison garb for those whom it is found
cannot be trusted, and who will not live up to the rules and
regulations of the prison authorities.

There could be three classes of convicts : Those in the First
Class who are not required to wear startling or very noticeable
uniforms ; those in the Second Class who are required to wear
a distinctive uniform but not stripes ; and those in the Third
Class, who are required to wear stripes and, if necessary, have
their heads shaved.

To the Third Class would be assigned those who have been
convicted and sentenced more than once for some crime against
the State, and those who, while serving out their sentence, are
constantly breaking rules and regulations of the prison au-
thorities.

To the Second Class would be assigned those who have start-
ed in the First Class but have shown that they will not obey
all the rules and regulations or do good or efficient work and
are not to be trusted ; and for further infringement of the rules
and regulations, they would be assigned to the Third Class.
To this Second Class would come men from the Third Class
who have shown by their work and their deportment that they
are trying to live up to the rules and regulations and become
better men. They in time might be able to be transferred
to the First Class.

To the First Class would be assigned those who have been
convicted for the first time, and they would remain in this
Class until they have showm by their behavior that they are not
to be trusted or will not do good and efficient work, when they
will be assigned to the Second Class. In this First Class would
be the men who would be known as " honor men."

In the South where a very large proportion of the men con-
victed of crime are negroes, it may not be possible to carry out
exactly the above classification, as it may be necessary to assign
the negro convict to the Second Class and make him show by his
work and deportment that he is entitled to a place amongst the

1914^ CoxviCT Labor ix Road Construction 67

" honor men." In the West and probably in the Xorth where
the negro convict is in the minority, it is possible to assign them
at once to the First Class. To some it may seem that guns are
necessary to control the negro convict, yet I believe it will be
found possible to create in his mind the idea and realization
that the serving out of his sentence is simply paying a just debt
that he owes to the State, and that the State is really trying
to better his condition and give him a chance to make something
of himself again; and that this will develop in him a loyalty to
the superintendent of the camp and the foreman under whom
he works.

The convict force will be divided into the above classes re-
gardless of the work that they are to do. The present paper,
however, takes up the question of the use of this labor in the
construction of public roads, which means the erection at vari-
ous points of convict camps.

ORGAXIZATIOX OF THE CONVICTS

The organization of this convict labor for road construction
will be of two distinct methods depending upon the classes of
convicts used :

First, would be the convicts that would be worked without
guards and without stripes, representing the men of the First
Class or " honor men."

Second, would be those over whom it is necessary to have
armed guards while they are working, and would be convicts of
the Second and Third classes.

The men of the Third Class would wear stripes and work
under guards with guns, and the worst men of this class might
have to be worked in stockades in breaking rock or doing sim-
ilar work. Those of Class II would be worked under guards
with or without exposed firearms, as the case might be. At
night the convicts of Class III would be on chains and under
armed guards, while those of Class II would be not on chains
but under armed guards.

68 Journal of the Mitchell Society [January

FIKST method of ORGANIZATION

The convicts in the firs't method of organization representing
Class I or " honor men " would be divided into three groups,
if the camp is of sufficient size, according to the work that the
men are capable of doing. In the first group would be the
most efiicient men of the camp of whom would be expected a
cer'tain definite amount of work. The rest of the convicts of
the camp would be graded into second and third groups. Know-
ing then what each group of men is capable of doing on an
average as a day's work, the foreman of the road work could
estimate what each group should easily be able to do in a certain
time; and then, if the group were able by especially energetic
work to accomplish more than the required amount, the men of
that group should be allowed as a bonus a certain percentage
of the value of the extra work that the group accomplishes,
this to be paid in money and divided equally amongst them.
The first group should be allowed 50 per cent; the second group,
40 per cent; and the third group, 30 per cent of the values of
the extra work. The men should be permitted to spend this
money at any time for things they wish that, of course, are not
under the ban of the authorities.

As I have already stated, I believe that the convicts should
be allowed a certain per cent of the value of the time that they
are obliged to work for the State, the money thus earned to be-
come accumulative and to be turned over to them at the ex-
piration of their sentence ; or to be turned over, if requested by
the convict, at stated intervals to his family, provided that at
all times there shall be a certain percentage of that earned by
the convict to his credit in the Penitentiary Treasury. These
two opportunities of actually earning money will be a very
great incentive for the men to do better and more consci-
entious work and will also be an incentive for each man
to see to it that each member of the group to which
he is assigned does his part toward keeping up the
record and reputation of the group. The amount allowed
to convicts for their labor will vary according to the Class to
which the convict is assigned. Those of the First Class should

1914^] CoiSrviCT Labor in Road Consteuction 69

receive a greater amount per day than, that received by either
of the other two classes; but each group of Class I should
receive the same percentage. This would be a fair proposition
inasmuch as the cost to the State of the men in the First Class
is considerably less than those in the other two classes inasmuch
as no guards are required and the men are on their honor.
My idea is that no matter what the rate allowed per man be,
the man of the First Class should receive one-third again as
much as those in Class II ; he, in turn, should receive one-third
again as much as those in Class III. It will cause the men of
'the First Class to do their best to remain there, as they are able
to earn more money ; and it will be an incentive for the men of
the third group to try to get into the second group, and for the
men of the second group to get into the first group.

Those men of the First Class should also be receiving a com-
mutation of their time. This varies in the different states,
amounting to as much as ten days in one month in some states.
If any man in Class I does not live up to what is expected of
the " honor men " and breaks the rules and regulations of the
camp, he may be reduced to a lower group ; or, if his offense is
very great, he may be reduced to Class II, and in the latter
case he would lose what time has been commuted. If he at-
tempts to escape he is to be reduced at once to Class III and
will lose not only the time commuted but what money has
been credited to him. Thus it will be seen that there is every
incentive for the men in Class I to remain in that class ; and I
believe the men of that class will try and do their part to see
that each one of the class lives up to what is expected of them.
Those in Class II and III will see the great benefits that come
to those in Class I, and will begin to do what they can to be
transferred to Class I.

The accumulation of money that the convict has earned and
the accumulation of time commuted from his sentence, which
he knows will be lost if he attempts to escape or if he con-
stantly breaks the rules and regulations of the camp, will be
one of the strong motives that will prevent him from trying to
escape ; and, as will be seen later, this will also apply to the men
of the Second and Third Classes. To my mind, however, one of

YO Journal of the Mitchell Society [^January

the strongest motives that will keep the men in Class I is the
fact that confidence has been placed in them and they are trust-
ed. It might be well at this point to state that any community
'that undertakes the working of convicts along the lines I am
outlining must make it a point that " honor men " must he
"honor men" in every sense of the word. There must be no
guards of any sort. They must be housed, treated, worked, and
fed similarly as in a military camp or perhaps in a railroad con-
struction camp; differing from the latter, however, inasmuch
as there would have to be certain rules and regulations similar to
a military camp that the men. must live up to ; such as, retiring
and getting up at certain specific times, being regular at meals,
and other regulations that would be laid down by the Warden
or Superintendent of the convicts. It is in this way that the
convict realizes to the fullest extent the confidence that the
State is placing in him and is believing that he will respect
this confidence and pay his just debt by serving out his sentence.

SECOND method OF ORGANIZATION

In this second method of organization where it is necessary to
have the convicts guarded, the organization is somewhat differ-
ent than in the first. In the first place we have two classes of
convicts, one of which (Class III) are the men that have shown
for the time being at best that they cannot be trusted in any
way and have to be worked in stripes under armed guards and
have to be chained at night.

.Class II also has to be worked under guards, but it will be
found that in some instances, as will be noted later, it will not
be necessary that these guards carry exposed firearms. The men.
of Class II can be divided into two groups. Those of Group 1
would be considered men who are on probation before being
transferred to Class I; and, while they are still worked under
guards, it will not be necessary for these guards to carry exposed
firearms. Group 2 would be worked under guards carrying
exposed firearms but without chains. At night all the men of
Class II would be in camp under armed guards. Those of
group 1 would not be on a chain while those of group 2 would
be. These men of Class II would wear some distinctive uni-

191Jf] Convict Labor ix Road Construction 71

form, but not stripes. The men of Class II should be allowed
a certain percentage in money of the value of their labor which,
however, would be one-third less than that received by the men
of Class I, and there would be no bonuses allowed for any
ex'tra work. The men in Group 1 of Class II would have the
advantages over group 2 of not being under guards with ex-
posed firearms, not being on the chain at night and being in
direct line for transfer to Class I. This, I believe, would be
incentive enough to keep these men from breaking the rules
and regulations of the camp. Group 2 of Class II would know
that by good behavior and good work they would be able 'to get
transferred to Group 1 of the same class and in the end to
Class I.

For infringements of the rules and regulations and for any
attempt to escape, they would be punished similarly as stated
for the men of Class I.

The men of Class III would be divided into two groups.
Group 1 would be worked on the public roads but under guards
and if necessary with chains. At night they would be under
strict armed guards and on the chain. Those of Group 2 would
be men whom it is not considered advisable to work on the
public roads, and would be worked in stockades under armed
guards and, if necessary with ball and chain. Those men could
break rock for macadam, make cement drain tile, or other
work that could be done in a stockade. With good behavior
the men in Class III would be transferred from Group 2 to
Group 1, and then from Group 1 to Class II, and so on to
Class I. They would also be allowed for good behavior a com-
mutation of their time and a certain per cent of the value of
their labor in money. This, however, would be considerably less
than that received by the men in Class II.

The one idea embodied in the above suggestions is that the
rules and regulations of the camp and penitentiary authorities
must be obeyed, but in obeying these the convict becomes entitled
to and receives special consideration by the State.

The commutation of time would be the same for all classes of
convicts provided, of course, that they are living up to the rules
and regulations of the camp to which they are assigned.

72 Journal of the Mitchell Society [January

Tlie organization of the men who are to handle the convicts is
of two-fold character: First, the men who take charge of the
physical body of the convict ; and Second, those who have charge
of the labor of the convict.

The superintendent of the camp should have charge of the
feeding, clothing, and guarding, when necessary, of the convict.
He shall also be responsible for sanitary conditions of the camp
and for the care of the sick. He shall provide the guards, when
necessary, but these in no case should be permitted to ac't as
foremen of the road work.

The superintendent of the construction work will have charge
of the labor of the convicts, and he shall through his foreman,
direct such labor, and it shall be performed as he wishes it. He
and the Engineer of road work of the State shall decide the
amount of work that should be required of the convicts and
determine what men shall be in the three groups of Class I.
The division of the men into classes shall rest with the peni-
tentiary authorities, bu't the superintendent of the work who
comes in close contact with the convict may from time to time
recommend changes, and shall rej^ort the refusal of any men to
work as directed, which would constitute an infringement of
the regulations of the camp.

It would not be necessary to work all the " honor men " of
Class I in one camp, but certain numbers of these can be trans-
ferred to other camps where they would have special sleeping
quarters, and would do such work as blacksmithing, bridge and
culvert work, and